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Star Cineplex

2025-11-12T17:40:33Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Bangladeshi movie theater chain}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}} {{Infobox company | name = STAR Cineplex | image = | logo = Star Cineplex Logo.png | logocaption = | type = Multiplex Movie Theater | traded_as = | founded = {{Start date and age|2004|10|09|df=yes}} in Dhaka, Bangladesh | location = Dhaka | key_people = Mahboob Rahman Ruhel<ref name="ds11Oct2016">{{cite news |title=12th anniversary of Star Cineplex|url..."

{{Short description|Bangladeshi movie theater chain}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox company
| name = STAR Cineplex
| image =
| logo = Star Cineplex Logo.png
| logocaption =
| type = Multiplex Movie Theater
| traded_as =
| founded = {{Start date and age|2004|10|09|df=yes}} in [[Dhaka, Bangladesh]]
| location = [[Dhaka]]
| key_people = [[Mahboob Rahman|Mahboob Rahman Ruhel]]<ref name="ds11Oct2016">{{cite news |title=12th anniversary of Star Cineplex|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/multimedia/arts-entertainment/photo/12th-anniversary-star-cineplex-1297603#244993|work=The Daily Star|access-date=23 November 2016|date=11 October 2016}}</ref> (chairperson)
| parent = Show Motion Limited<ref name="ds11Oct2016" />
| industry = [[Entertainment|Entertainment (movie theaters)]]
| num_employees =
| products =
| caption =
| revenue =
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| assets =
| equity =
| homepage = {{URL|http://www.cineplexbd.com/}}
}}

'''STAR Cineplex''' is a Bangladeshi [[movie theater]] chain.<ref>{{cite news |title=Star Cineplex turns one|url=https://archive.thedailystar.net/2005/11/27/d51127140393.htm|newspaper=The Daily Star|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227102251/https://archive.thedailystar.net/2005/11/27/d51127140393.htm |access-date=23 November 2016|archive-date=27 February 2021 }}</ref> It is owned by Show Motion Limited and the first of its type in Dhaka, Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dreaming Big|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/star-weekend/star-people/dreaming-big-1257226|work=The Daily Star|access-date=23 November 2016|date=22 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Star Cineplex reply|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/2005/06/26/d50626110184.htm|work=The Daily Star|access-date=23 November 2016|archive-date=23 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123202751/http://archive.thedailystar.net/2005/06/26/d50626110184.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Star Cineplex, Bashundhara, Dhaka, Bangladesh.jpg|thumb|STAR Cineplex in Bashundhara City]]
STAR Cineplex was founded on 9 October 2004,<ref>{{cite news |title=Star Cineplex- The cinema Paradiso?|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/2004/11/04/d41104140295.htm|work=The Daily Star|access-date=23 November 2016|date=4 November 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220518080907/http://archive.thedailystar.net/2004/11/04/d41104140295.htm |archive-date=18 May 2022 }}</ref> in [[Bashundhara City]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Titanic 3D marks Star Cineplex's 10th anniversary|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/news/titanic-3d-marks-star-cineplexs-10th-anniversary|work=The Daily Star|access-date=23 November 2016|date=12 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Two new movie theatres in city|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/arts-entertainment/event/two-new-movie-theatres-city-129472|work=The Daily Star|access-date=23 November 2016|date=20 August 2015}}</ref> Star Cineplex has six fully digital cinema screens with state-of-the-art 3D Projection Technology, silver screens, Dolby-Digital sound and stadium seating. With a total capacity of approximately 1600 seats the theater has large lobby with full concession stands serving pop-corns, soft drinks, ice-creams and many other items.<ref>{{cite news|title=New STAR Cineplex halls|url=https://bdnews24.com/media-en/2015/08/18/new-star-cineplex-halls|work=bdnews24.com|access-date=1 January 2018|date=18 August 2015}}</ref> In January 2019, they opened their second cineplex at Shimanto Shambhar, a newly built shopping centre beside [[Shimanto Square]].<ref>{{cite news |title=STAR Cineplex now in Dhanmondi|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/arts-entertainment/event/star-cineplex-now-in-dhaka-dhanmondi-shimanto-shambhar-1693756|work=The Daily Star|access-date=1 February 2019|date=28 January 2019}}</ref> In October 2019, they opened their third cineplex at SKS Tower in [[Mohakhali]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Star Cineplex flaunts new semi recliner seats|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/showtime/2019/10/20/watch-star-cineplex-flaunts-new-semi-recliner-seats|work=Dhaka Tribune|access-date=26 May 2020|date=20 October 2019}}</ref> In August 2021, they opened their fourth cineplex in [[Mirpur Model Thana|Mirpur]] at Sony Square.<ref>{{cite news|title=Star Cineplex's Sony Square to open at Mirpur on August 20 |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/tv-film/news/star-cineplexs-sony-square-open-mirpur-august-20-2153596 |work=The Daily Star |date=16 August 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Star Cineplex to open new branch in Mirpur |url=https://www.newagebd.net/article/146600/star-cineplex-to-open-new-branch-in-mirpur |work=New Age |date=17 August 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Star Cineplex to open at Mirpur on 20 August |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/glitz/mirpur-star-cineplex-open-20-august-289435 |work=The Business Standard |date=17 August 2021 |language=en}}</ref> They opened their fifth cineplex at [[Bangladesh Military Museum]] in April 2022 with state-of-the-art sound system and a capacity of 183 seats.<ref>{{cite news |title=Star Cineplex to open at Bangabandhu Military Museum|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/tv-film/news/star-cineplex-open-bangabandhu-military-museum-3008811 |work=The Daily Star |date=20 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Star Cineplex's new branch at Bangabandhu Military Museum opens today|url=https://www.tbsnews.net/splash/star-cineplexs-new-branch-bangabandhu-military-museum-opens-today-418246 |work=The Business Standard |date=12 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref> They opened their first branch outside Dhaka at Bali Arcade in [[Chittagong]] on 2 December 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bangla.bdnews24.com/glitz/idllyy230m|title=চট্টগ্রামে চালু হল স্টার সিনেপ্লেক্স|language=bn|date=3 December 2022|website=[[Bdnews24.com]]}}</ref> They opened their second branch outside Dhaka at Bangabandhu Hi-tech Park in [[Rajshahi]] on 13 January 2023. Cineplex opened their Uttara branch at the [[Centrepoint, Dhaka|Centrepoint]] mall.<ref>{{Cite news |date=November 2023 |title=Star Cineplex's new branch at Uttara |url=https://www.daily-sun.com/printversion/details/720761 |access-date=2025-02-15 |newspaper=Daily Sun |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Star Cineplex Hall, Military Museum, Dhaka.jpg|thumb|Star Cineplex Hall inside the [[Bangladesh Military Museum|Military Museum]]]]

==Controversy==
In August 2022, the authority was accused of not selling ticket of ''[[Poran (film)|Poran]]'' to a senior citizen named Saman Ali Sarkar for wearing [[lungi]] at the Sony Square branch of Star Cineplex. When the whole incident went viral on the internet, there was outrage among the people and many went to Star Cineplex wearing lungi to watch films in protest. The authority apologized for the incident in August 4 and Saman was allowed to watch the film with his family that day.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bangla.dhakatribune.com/entertainment/2022/08/04/1659631675212|title=সিনেমাপ্রেমী সামান আলীকে নিরাশ হতে হয়নি|language=bn|date=4 August 2022|access-date=4 August 2022|website=[[Dhaka Tribune]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{commons-inline}}
* {{Official website}}

[[Category:Cinema chains in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:2004 establishments in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Mass media companies of Bangladesh]]

{{Bangladesh-org-stub}}

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2025-11-09T18:15:25Z

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2025-11-09T18:14:20Z

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Category:Bangladeshi people by district

2025-11-09T18:06:08Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|none}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}} Listed below are notable people who are either citizens of Bangladesh, born in the region of what is now Bangladesh, or of Bangladeshi origin living abroad. For brevity, people who fall into more than one category are listed in only one of them. For further information, see Bangladeshi people. {{Dynamic list}} == Leaders of independence movements == === British colonial period === <!-- I..."

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
Listed below are notable people who are either citizens of [[Bangladesh]], born in the region of what is now Bangladesh, or of [[Bangladeshis|Bangladeshi]] origin living abroad. For brevity, people who fall into more than one category are listed in only one of them. For further information, see [[Bangladeshi people]].
{{Dynamic list}}

== Leaders of independence movements ==
=== British colonial period ===

* [[Khwaja Salimullah]], founder of the [[All-India Muslim League]], contributed to the spread of [[Muslim nationalism in South Asia]]
* [[Chittaranjan Das]], founder of the [[Swaraj Party]], one of the leading proponents of intercommunal harmony in India
* [[Nawaab Syed Shamsul Huda]], first Indian Muslim president of the reformed [[Order of British India|legislative council]] of the undivided Bengal in 1921
* [[A. K. Fazlul Huq]], Prime Minister of [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]] (1937–1943), Chief Minister of [[East Bengal]] (1954–1955) and Governor of [[East Pakistan]] (1956)
* [[Nawab Abdul Latif]], educator and social worker
* [[Surya Sen]], revolutionary and leader of [[Indian independence movement]], known for leading [[Chittagong armoury raid]]
* [[Haji Shariatullah]], founder of the [[Faraizi Movement]]
* [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]], last Prime Minister of [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]] (1946–1947), later Prime Minister of [[Pakistan]] (1956–1957)
* [[Pritilata Waddedar]], activist of the [[Indian independence movement]]

===Martyrs of the Bengali Language Movement 1952===

* [[Rafiq Uddin Ahmed]]
* [[Abul Barkat]]
* [[Abdul Jabbar (activist)|Abdul Jabbar]]
* [[Abdus Salam (Bengali Language Movement demonstrator)|Abdus Salam]]
* [[Shafiur Rahman]]

===Bangladesh War of Independence, 1971===

* [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]]
* [[Maulana Bhashani|Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani]], founder of [[Bangladesh Awami League]], [[National Awami Party]]
* [[Chitta Ranjan Dutta]], Sector Commander 4
* Major [[Nazmul Huq]], Commander Sector 7 (till August 1971)
* Squadron Leader [[M. Hamidullah Khan]], [[Bangladesh Government]] Chief Representative - Chakulia (Bihar) Guerilla Trng. Camp, BDF Sub-sector commander - Mankarchar (Sector 11), BDF Commander - Sector 11 (November 2–February 14, 1972)
* Major [[Abul Manzur|M.A. Manzur]], Commander Sector 8
* Major [[Khaled Musharraf]], BDF Commander Sector 2, Commander K-Force
* [[Colonel-in-Chief]] [[Muhammad Ataul Ghani Osmany]], Commander-in-Chief, [[Bangladesh Forces]], War of Independence, 1971. (Later promoted to General)
* Major [[Ziaur Rahman]], Declarer (on behalf of Sheikh Mujib) of the Independence of Bangladesh on March 27, 1971. [[Bangladesh Forces|BDF]] Sector Commander Sector 1(April~May) and Central Sector - Sector 11 (June – October 10, 1971) and Z-Force Commander
* Major [[K.M Shafiullah]], S Force commander
* Major [[Abu Taher]], sub-sector commander - Mahendraganj (HQ 11), Interim Commander Sector 11 (October 10–November 2, 1971)

===Bangladesh, July Revolution 2024===

*[[Nahid Islam]]
*[[Asif Mahmud]]
*[[Hasnat Abdullah]]
*[[Sarjis Alam]]

== Scientists, engineers and educators ==

* [[Nasima Akhter]] (born 1970), nuclear medicine researcher
* [[Arun Kumar Basak]], scientist and professor emeritus of [[University of Rajshahi]]
* [[Abdullah-Al-Muti|Abdullah Al Muti]], scientist and science writer
* [[Maqsudul Alam]], scientist and professor who achieved three milestones in genomics - sequencing the genomes of papaya, rubber plants and jute at [[University of Hawaii]]
* [[Mir Masoom Ali]], emeritus professor of statistics
* [[Amit Chakma]], tenth president of the [[University of Western Ontario]]
* [[SM Faruque]], microbiologist and scientist, researcher on [[Vibrio cholerae]] which causes [[Cholera]]
* [[Azizul Haque (police officer)|Azizul Haque]], who pioneered the mathematical formula for the [[Henry Classification System]] of [[fingerprinting]]
* [[Tanzima Hashem]], academic, [[Elsevier Foundation Award]] winner in 2017
* [[M. Zahid Hasan]], Eugene Higgins endowed chair professor of [[quantum physics]] at [[Princeton University]] and scientist at [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]; known for many ground-breaking discoveries in the quantum world<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal |date=2016 |title=Topological insulators promise computing advances, insights into matter itself |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=113 |issue=37 |pages=10223–10224 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1611504113 |issn=0027-8424 |pmid=27625422 |last1=Ornes |first1=S. |pmc=5027448 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* [[Khandkar Manwar Hossain]], statistician and founder of the Department of Statistics in [[Rajshahi University]]
* [[Saleemul Huq]], awarded the [[Burtoni Award]] for contributing to [[climate change adaptation]]
* [[Fazle Hussain]], professor of mechanical engineering at [[Texas Tech University]]; elected Fellow of National Academy of Engineering
* [[Abul Hussam]], awarded the 2007 Grainger Challenge Prize for Sustainability
* [[Muhammed Zafar Iqbal]], scientist and science writer
* [[Jamal Nazrul Islam]], physicist and mathematician
* [[Jawed Karim]], co-creator of YouTube and designer of PayPal's anti-fraud system
* [[Mohammad Ataul Karim]], Bangladeshi American scientist
* [[Fazlur Rahman Khan]], structural engineer and architect
* [[Sezan Mahmud]], Medical Scientist and Educator, writer, Dean for EID, QU Netter School of Medicine.
* [[Bibhuti Roy]], engineer and educationist
* [[Sal Khan|Salman Khan]], founder of Khan Academy
* [[M. A. Naser]], pioneer in engineering education in Bangladesh
* [[Muhammad Qudrat-i-Khuda]], Bangladeshi scientist, educationist and writer
* [[Khondkar Siddique-e-Rabbani]], biomedical physicist
* [[Abdul Matin Patwari]], electrical engineer, mathematician, vice-chancellor of Bangladesh University of Engineering Technology
* [[Qazi Motahar Hossain]], scientist, statistician, founder-director of [[Institute of Statistical Research and Training]], [[University of Dhaka]]
* [[Omar Ishrak]], investor, entrepreneur, executive chairman and chairman of the board, [[Medtronic]]; [[Intel|board chairman of INTEL]]
* [[Mohammad Kaykobad]], computer scientist, educator, author and columnist of Bangladesh, professor of computer science and engineering at BUET
* [[Lucina Uddin]], American neuroscientist, born in Bangladesh<ref name=Uddin>{{Cite web |title=OHBM Young Investigator 2017: Lucina Uddin |url=http://www.ohbmbrainmappingblog.com/1/post/2017/10/ohbm-young-investigator-2017-lucina-uddin.html |access-date=2021-08-22 |website=ORGANIZATION FOR HUMAN BRAIN MAPPING |language=en}}</ref>

== Educationists ==
* [[Serajul Islam Choudhury]], educationist, public intellectual
* [[Rasheda K Chowdhury]], Bangladeshi academic, former Advisor of Caretaker Government, Bangladesh
* [[Abul Kashem Fazlul Haq (professor)|Abul Kashem Fazlul Haq]], educationist, former professor of [[University of Dhaka]]
* [[Syed Manzoorul Islam]], educationist, former professor of [[University of Dhaka]]
* [[Rafiqul Islam (educationist)|Rafiqul Islam]], national professor, Bangladesh
* [[Jamilur Reza Choudhury]], former professor, BUET, national professor, Bangladesh
* [[Anisuzzaman]], professor, University of Dhaka, national professor, Bangladesh

==Arts, culture, and literature==

{{see also|List of Bangladeshi women writers}}
* [[Hiralal Sen]], founder of Indian cinema
* [[Ahmed Sofa]], writer, thinker, novelist
* [[Zainul Abedin]], painter
* [[Humayun Ahmed]], novelist and former professor of [[Chemistry]], [[Dhaka University]]
* [[Tofail Ahmed]], author and researcher of folk art
* [[Alaol]], medieval poet
* [[Monica Ali]], author of [[Brick Lane (book)|Brick Lane]]
* [[Syed Mujtaba Ali]], Bengali author, academician, scholar and [[linguist]]
* [[Tahmima Anam]], novelist and winner of the 2008 [[Commonwealth Writers' Prize]]
* [[Rashid Askari]], writer, fictionist, columnist, and academic
* [[Humayun Azad]], writer and former professor of [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Dhaka University]]
* [[Rafiq Azad]], poet
* [[Manzoor Alam Beg]], photographer and author
* [[Rituraj Bhowmick]], writer
* [[Munier Chowdhury]], educator, dramatist and intellectual killed in 1971 [[Liberation War of Bangladesh]]
* [[Akhteruzzaman Elias]], novelist and short story writer
* [[Nirmalendu Goon]], poet
* [[Abdul Hakim (poet)|Abdul Hakim]], medieval poet
* [[Marjana Chowdhury]], Bangladeshi-American model, philanthropist and beauty queen Miss Bangladesh USA
* [[Sikdar Aminul Haq]], poet
* [[Quamrul Hassan]], artist
* [[Saad Z Hossain]], writer
* [[Khondakar Ashraf Hossain]], poet, essayist, translator and editor
* [[Abul Hussain]], poet
* [[Jahanara Imam]], writer and activist
* [[Muhammed Zafar Iqbal]], writer and educator
* [[Kazi Nazrul Islam]], national poet of Bangladesh
* [[Mazharul Islam]], architect, political activist
* [[Syed Jahangir]], freelance artist of Bangladesh
* [[Adiba Jaigirdar]], Bangladeshi-Irish writer
* [[Jasimuddin]], poet
* [[Shahriyar Kabir]], author and journalist
* [[Shahidullah Kaiser]], educator, novelist and intellectual killed in 1971 [[Liberation War of Bangladesh]]
* [[Abul Kashem]], architect and educationist
* [[Lalon]] Shah, mystic poet
* [[Al Mahmud]], poet
* [[Sezan Mahmud]], Writer, lyricist, filmmaker, medical scientist and educationist.
* [[Firoz Mahmud]], contemporary visual artist, creator, painter
* [[Ghulam Murshid]], author, scholar and journalist
* [[Partha Pratim Majumder]], Bangladeshi mime artist who is considered the "forerunner" of mime art in Bangladesh
* [[Natyaguru]] [[Nurul Momen]], trailblazer progressive cultural personality who dispelled fundamentalism from the society by championing theatrical and performing arts and secular literature
* [[Shahabuddin Nagari]], poet, writer and singer
* [[Shamsur Rahman (poet)|Shamsur Rahman]], poet
* [[Hason Raja]], mystic poet
* [[Begum Rokeya]], writer
* [[Bibi Russell]], model and fashion designer
* [[Arunabh Sarkar]], poet
* [[Muhammad Shahidullah]], Bengali educationist, writer and linguist
* [[Rudra Muhammad Shahidullah]], poet
* [[Ahmed Sharif]], writer of Bengali literature, secularist
* [[SM Sultan]], painter
* [[Kamal Abdul Naser Chowdhury|Kamal Chowdhury]], poet
* [[Taslima Nasrin]], famous writer and feminist, awardee of Ananda Puraskar
* [[Salimullah Khan]], writer, thinker
* [[Hasan Azizul Huq|Hasan Azizul Haq]], writer
* [[Sanjida Khatun]], musicologist, one of the founders of [[Chhayanaut]]
* [[Shahid Mahmud Jangi]], writer, lyricist
* [[Monica Jahan Bose]], artist and climate activist

== Chefs ==
* [[Keka Ferdousi]]
* [[Alpana Habib]]
* [[Tony Karim]]
* [[Siddika Kabir]]

==Social reformers and leaders==

* [[Fazle Hasan Abed]], founder of BRAC
* [[Hazi Mohammad Mohsin]], philanthropist
* [[Muhammad Yunus]], founder of the [[Grameen Bank]], 2006 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner

==Music, film and television==

* [[James (musician)]], Singer-songwriter, playback, singerrecord, produceractor
* [[Ayub Bachchu]], singer and guitarist
* [[Abdur Razzak (actor)|Abdur Razzak]], actor, director
* [[Shabana (actress)|Shabana]], film actress
* [[Bobita]], film actress
* [[Shefali Chowdhury]], played [[Harry Potter]]'s Yule Ball date in ''Goblet of Fire''
* [[Sumita Devi]], film and television actress
* [[Abdul "Duke" Fakir]], American singer of Ethiopian and Bangladeshi descent, member of the [[Four Tops]]
* [[Humayun Faridi]], TV, stage, and film actor
* [[Chanchal Chowdhury]], actor
* [[Bidya Sinha Saha Mim]], actor and model
* [[Apu Biswas]], film actress and model
* [[Jaya Ahsan]], actress and producer
* [[Dipjol]], film actor, film producer and politician
* [[Waheedul Haq]], Tagore song specialist and journalist
* [[Zahid Hasan (actor)|Zahid Hasan]], actor and director
* [[Rahsaan Islam]], American actor of Bangladeshi descent
* [[Jayasree Kabir]], actress
* [[Kaushik Hossain Taposh]], music composer, singer, producer & MD of [[Gaan Bangla]]
* [[Mehazabien Chowdhury]]
* [[Mosharraf Karim]], actor
* [[Montazur Rahman Akbar]], film director, producer
* [[Mukul Chowdhury]], lyricist and musical artist
* [[Azam Khan (singer)|Azam Khan]], singer
* [[Alam Khan (composer)|Alam Khan]], music director and composer
* [[Tahsan Rahman Khan]], singer and actor
* [[Shakib Khan]], actor, producer, singer, film organiser and media personality
* [[Arifin Shuvoo]], actor, television presenter, RJ and model
* [[Runa Laila]], singer
* [[Manna (actor)|Manna]], film actor
* [[Tareque Masud]], film director
* [[Tanvir Mokammel]], film director
* [[Asaduzzaman Noor]], actor, politician and member of parliament
* [[Khan Ataur Rahman]], film director
* [[Shahnaz Rahmatullah]], singer
* [[Raja Chanda]]
* [[Raef al Hasan Rafa]], Musician, singer-songwriter, producer
* [[Shayan Chowdhury Arnob]], Musician, record producer, artist
* [[Saidus Salehin Khaled Sumon]], Singer-songwriter, bass player, record producer, actor, entrepreneur
* [[Rola (model)|Rola]], half Bangladeshi, quarter Russian, quarter Japanese fashion model
* [[Shabnam]], film actress
* [[Dino Shafeek]], British actor known for ''[[Mind Your Language]]''
* [[Salman Shah (actor)|Salman Shah]], film actor
* [[Sabina Yasmin]], singer
* [[Zahir Raihan]], film director
* [[Sharmin Sultana Sumi]], singer
* [[Emon Chowdhury]], singer

==Economists==
* [[Muhiuddin Khan Alamgir]], internationally recognised economist, elected member of IMF (International Monetary Fund), National political leader

* [[Qazi Kholiquzzaman Ahmad]], economist and development thinker, Chairman of [[Dhaka School of Economics]]
* [[Nurul Islam (economist)|Nurul Islam]], economist, Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission, author
* [[Anu Muhammad]], economist
* [[Anisur Rahman (economist)|Md. Anisur Rahman]], economist, former member of the Planning Commission, author
* [[Muzaffar Ahmed (economist)|Muzaffar Ahmed]], economist and [[emeritus professor]] at the [[Institute of Business Administration, University of Dhaka|Institute of Business Administration]] of the [[University of Dhaka]]
* [[Atiur Rahman]], economist, Governor of [[Bangladesh Bank]] and former director of the state-owned [[Sonali Bank]]
* [[Rehman Sobhan]], economist
* [[Abul Barkat (economist)|Abul Barkat]], economist

==Entrepreneurs==

* [[Mahmudul Hasan Sohag]] Founder of [[Rokomari.com]]
* [[Abdul Awal Mintoo]], former president of [[Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry]] (FBCCI)
* [[Amjad Khan Chowdhury]], founder of Bangladesh business conglomerate [[PRAN-RFL Group]]
* [[Ahmed Akbar Sobhan]], chairman of the business conglomerate [[Bashundhara Group]]
* [[Ananta Jalil]], chairman of AJ Group (Bangladesh)
* [[Ayman Sadiq]], founder of 10 Minute School
* [[Sir Fazle Hasan Abed]], founder and chairperson of the world's largest international development NGO, [[BRAC (NGO)|BRAC]]
* [[Sal Khan]], Half Bangladeshi and founder of Khan Academy
* [[Samson H. Chowdhury]], chairman of Astras Ltd. and Square (Bangladesh)
* [[Syed Manzur Elahi]], founder of Apex Group<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/suppliments/2010/04/bba_2009/roll.htm |title=Role of Honour |access-date=January 3, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121214053211/http://www.thedailystar.net/suppliments/2010/04/bba_2009/roll.htm |archive-date=December 14, 2012}}</ref>
* [[Iqbal Quadir]], co-founder of [[GrameenPhone]]
* [[Mahmudur Rahman]], newspaper owner and editor
* [[Mohammad Fazlul Azim]], chairman of Azim Group, former MP
* [[Omar Ishrak]], investor, entrepreneur, executive chairman and chairman of the board, [[Medtronic]]; [[Intel|board chairman of INTEL]]

==Media and journalism==

* [[Mukhlesur Rahman Chowdhury]], former adviser to the President of Bangladesh
* [[Salah Choudhury]], writer, peace activist and journalist
* [[Lenin Gani]], journalist, winner of the Best Sports Report in 2001 by Dhaka Reporters Unity
* [[Kaberi Gayen]], prominent academic, author, columnist for ''The Daily Star''
* [[Kazi Shamsul Hoque]], journalist
* [[Mainul Hosein]], former chairman of the editorial board of ''[[The Daily Ittefaq]]''
* [[Naveed Mahbub]], comedian and columnist
* [[Aydha Mehnaz]], modest fashion innovator featured in Forbes' [[30 Under 30]], the first Bangladeshi featured.
* [[Matiur Rahman (journalist)|Matiur Rahman]], editor of the daily ''[[Prothom Alo]]'', winner of [[Ramon Magsaysay Award]] for journalism
* [[Shykh Seraj]], director of News [[Channel i]], Agriculture Development activist, winner of [[FAO]] A.H. Boerma Award, [[Ekushey Padak]]
* [[Mahbub Jamal Zahedi]], former editor of the ''[[Khaleej Times]]'', assistant editor of ''[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]'', and founder-editor of ''[[The Agatya]]''
* [[Samia Zaman]], Editor and CEO of the television channel ''[[Ekattor TV]]''
* [[Tasmima Hossain]], on 4 July 2018, she was made the editor of ''[[The Daily Ittefaq]]''
* [[Anisul Hoque]], associate editor of a Bengali-language daily ''[[Prothom Alo]]'' and the editor of monthly youth magazine Kishor Alo
* [[Naem Nizam]], Editor [[Bangladesh Pratidin]]
* [[Farida Yasmin (journalist)|Farida Yasmin]], President of [[Jatiya Press Club]]
* [[Khaled Muhiuddin]], head of the German-based international media, Deutsche Welle Bangla Department

==Political figures==


* [[Delwar Hossain Sayeedi]], [[Bangladesh Jamaat-e Islami]]
* [[Manoranjan Dhar]], former law minister, BD
* [[Anwara Khatun]], member of East Pakistan Legislative Assembly
* [[Muhiuddin Khan Alamgir]], adviser, Bangladesh Awami League, former Home Minister
* [[Saifur Rahman (Bangladeshi politician)|M Saifur Rahman]], former finance minister
* [[Shah M S Kibria]], former finance minister
* [[Abdus Samad Azad]], former Foreign Minister
* [[Dewan Farid Gazi]], former minister
* [[Abul Mal Abdul Muhit]], incumbent finance minister
* [[Nurul Islam Nahid]], incumbent education minister
* [[Abul Mansur Ahmed]], politician from Mymensingh
* [[Moudud Ahmed]], barrister, politician and statesman
* [[Oli Ahmed]] ([[Bir Bikrom]]), President of the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Bangladesh)]], 2006–present; former Minister (various portfolios in multiple cabinets); decorated freedom fighter; one of the main founders of [[Bangladesh Nationalist Party]] (BNP)
* [[Shahabuddin Ahmed]], former president
* [[Majid-ul-Haq]], minister
* [[Ghulam Azam]], Islamist politician, former leader of [[Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh]], accused of war crimes for his role in 1971 [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]
* [[Muhammad Ali Bogra]], [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]], 1953–1955
* [[Fazlul Qadir Chaudhry]], acting president of Pakistan, Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan, President of Muslim League, accused of war crimes for his role in 1971 [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]
* [[Hamidul Huq Choudhury]], Foreign Minister of Pakistan, 1954–1956
* [[A.B.M. Mohiuddin Chowdhury]], mayor of Chittagong, member of the Chowdhury Family
* [[A.Q.M. Badruddoza Chowdhury]], former president, Leader of [[Bikalpa Dhara]]
* [[Motiya Chowdhury]], member of Parliament, former Minister of Agricultu

Category:Manikgoanj District

2025-11-09T18:03:07Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Infobox settlement  | name = Manikganj District | native_name = মানিকগঞ্জ জেলা | native_name_lang = bn | official_name = | type = District of Bangladesh | image_skyline = {{Photomontage |size = 250 |photo1a = Baliati Palace, Saturia, Manikganj (32).jpg |photo2a = |photo3a = Aricha Ghat..."

{{Infobox settlement

| name = Manikganj District
| native_name = মানিকগঞ্জ জেলা
| native_name_lang = bn
| official_name =
| type = [[Districts of Bangladesh|District of Bangladesh]]
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
|size = 250
|photo1a = Baliati Palace, Saturia, Manikganj (32).jpg
|photo2a =
|photo3a = Aricha Ghat Manikganj Bangladesh (4).JPG
|photo3b = Paturia Fari Ghat.jpg
|photo4a = Ishwar chandra high school, Manikgonj-2.jpg
|photo4b = Bailey bridge, Manikganj 2.jpg
|photo5a = Teota Jomidar Bari and Navaratna Temple by Nasir Khan.jpg
}}
| imagesize =
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Left to right from top: Baliati Royal Palace, [[Saturia]], Manikganj‌; Aricha Ghat; Paturia Ferry Ghat; Ishwar chandra high school; Bailey bridge; Teota Jomidar Bari and Navaratna Temple in the left corner
| image_flag =
| image_seal =
| image_shield =
| nickname =
| nicknames =
| motto =
| mottoes =
| image_map = BD Manikganj District locator map.svg
| map_caption = Location of Manikganj District in Bangladesh
| image_map1 = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|type=shape-inverse|id=|frame-width=200|frame-height=220|stroke-width=1|zoom=8|frame-align=center|frame-lat=|frame-long=|title=Manikganj District}}
| map_caption1 = Expandable map of Manikganj District
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Manikganj in Bangladesh
| coordinates = {{coord|23.86|90.00|region:BD|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_footnotes =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Bangladesh}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Divisions of Bangladesh|Division]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Dhaka Division|Dhaka]]
| established_title =
| established_date = 1 March 1984
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Manikganj]]
| leader_party =
| leader_title = [[Deputy Commissioner (Bangladesh)|Deputy Commissioner]]
| leader_name = D. Manwar Hossain Mollah
| leader_title1 =
| leader_name1 =
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 1383.66
| area_metro_km2 =
| area_note =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_footnotes = <ref name="2022census-district" />
| population_total = 1558025
| population_as_of = [[2022 Bangladeshi census|2022]]
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_demonyms =
| population_note =
| timezone1 = [[Bangladesh Standard Time|BST]]
| utc_offset1 = +06:00
| postal_code_type = [[List of postal codes in Bangladesh|Postal code]]
| postal_code = 1800
| area_code = 0651
| iso_code = BD-33
| blank_name_sec1 = [[Human Development Index|HDI]] (2018)
| blank_info_sec1 = 0.596<ref name="GlobalDataLab">{{Cite web |url=https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |title=Sub-national HDI – Area Database – Global Data Lab |website=hdi.globaldatalab.org |language=en |access-date=18 March 2020 |archive-date=23 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923120638/https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |url-status=live}}</ref> {{color|#fc0|medium}} · [[List of regions of Bangladesh by Human Development Index|11th of 21]]
| website = {{URL|www.manikganj.gov.bd}}
}}

'''Manikganj District''' ({{langx|bn|মানিকগঞ্জ জেলা|Mānikgoñj Jela}}; {{IPA|bn|mɑnɪkˈɡondʒ}}) is a district in central [[Bangladesh]] and part of the [[Dhaka Division]]. It was established in 1845 as a subdivision of [[Faridpur District]], then in 1953, it was transferred to [[Dhaka District]] for administrative purposes. Finally in 1984, Manikganj was declared a full district.

==History==
{{More citations needed|section|date=September 2023}}
Manikganj subdivision was established in 1845.<ref name="Banglapedia" /> It was transferred from Faridpur District to Dhaka District in 1853.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Khan |editor-first=Nurul Islam |title=Bangladesh District Gazetteers: Faridpur |year=1977 |publisher=Bangladesh Government Press |page=40 |oclc=708216}}</ref> In 1984, Manikganj subdivision was promoted to a full district.<ref name="Banglapedia" />

===War of Liberation===
The liberation war in 1971 in Manikganj District was organized and led by [[Abdul Halim Chowdhury]], Abdul Matin Chowdhury, Principal [[Abdur Rauf Khan|Abdur Rouf Khan]], and other heroes of the district.

On 29 October 1971, at the northwest corner of Golaidanga village, the Baldhara union (a group of freedom fighters) in [[Singair Upazila]] attacked boats carrying intruding Pakistani soldiers and a terrible battle occurred on the Nuruni Ganga (canal of Kaliganga river). Eighty-one Pakistani soldiers were killed, and many others were injured. The operation was led by freedom fighter Engr Tobarak Hossain Ludu, commander of the Mukti Bahini Lodu group. None of the Mukti Bahini freedom fighters were killed during this battle, which was a significant liberation fight against the Pakistani military in Manikgonj.

After this short-duration battle, the Mukti Bahini freedom fighters left the battlefield, and the Pakistani ranks were reinforced with more soldiers. They burnt 160 houses surrounding the area of Golaidanga village and killed 9 local people who were primarily elderly and stayed at home. Some local young boys helped freedom fighters in that ambush.

After the Golaidanga fight, Singair Upazila became free from Pakistani occupation on 13 November 1971. In the last week of November 1971, fresh groups of freedom fighters entered different areas of Manikganj and defeated Pakistani troops in a few battles.

On 14 December 1971, a group of Pakistan Bahini moving toward Dhaka entered Barundi village in [[Manikganj Sadar Upazila]]. Meanwhile, a group of liberation forces (''Mujib Bahini'') under the leadership of Shahadat Hossain Biswas Badal was preparing to attack them within the suitable place. Understanding this, the Pakistani soldiers immediately left the village, leaving two soldiers behind. One of them was arrested by the liberation forces at night on 14 December 1971, and the other was arrested by the same group after a small fight the next day. The then sub-division was declared free on 13 December.

=== Daulatpur–Saturia tornado ===
On 26 April 1989, Manikganj was the site of the [[Daulatpur–Saturia tornado]], which became the deadliest tornado in recorded history. 1,300 people were initially reported as having been killed, with 12,000 injured. The towns of [[Saturia]] and Manikganj were leveled, and about 80,000 people were made homeless.

==Geography==

Manikganj comprises an area of {{convert|1383.66|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. Annual average temperatures reach a maximum of 36 °C and a minimum to 12.7 °C with the annual rainfall total being {{convert|2376|mm|in|abbr=on}}.

There are several rivers in the Manikganj District,<ref>Bangladesh District Gazetteers:Manikganj. Government of Bangladesh. 1979, pp. 2–8</ref> including the [[Padma River]], [[Kaliganga River]], [[Jamuna River (Bangladesh)|Jamuna River]], [[Dhaleshwari River]], and [[Ichamati River]].

==Demographics==

{{Historical populations
|align=center
|percentages=pagr
|1981 |1063048
|1991 |1175909
|2001 |1285080
|2011 |1392867
|2022 |1558025
|footnote= Sources:<ref name="2022census-district" /><ref name="census2011">{{cite web |url=http://203.112.218.65:8008/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/PopCenZilz2011/Zila_Manikganj.pdf |title=Bangladesh Population and Housing Census 2011 Zila Report – Manikganj |website=bbs.gov.bd |publisher=[[Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics]] |access-date=2021-07-06 |archive-date=2021-11-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108063948/http://203.112.218.65:8008/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/PopCenZilz2011/Zila_Manikganj.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>
}}

According to the [[2022 Bangladeshi census|2022 Census of Bangladesh]], Manikganj District had 393,524 households and a population of 1,558,025 with an average 3.91 people per household. Among the population, 259,616 (16.66%) inhabitants were under 10 years of age. The population density was 1,126 people per km2. Manikganj District had a literacy rate (age 7 and over) of 71.17%, compared to the national average of 74.80%, and a sex ratio of 1072 females per 1000 males. Approximately, 14.74% of the population lived in urban areas. The ethnic population was 909.<ref name="2022census-national">{{Cite book |url=https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/bbs.portal.gov.bd/page/b343a8b4_956b_45ca_872f_4cf9b2f1a6e0/2023-11-20-05-20-e6676a7993679bfd72a663e39ef0cca7.pdf |title=Population and Housing Census 2022 National Report |publisher=[[Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics]] |date=November 2023 |isbn= |volume=1 |pages= |archive-date=2023-11-25 |access-date=2024-01-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125020331/https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/bbs.portal.gov.bd/page/b343a8b4_956b_45ca_872f_4cf9b2f1a6e0/2023-11-20-05-20-e6676a7993679bfd72a663e39ef0cca7.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Religion===
{{bar box
|title=Religion in Manikganj District (2022)<ref name="2022census-district">{{Cite book |url=http://nsds.bbs.gov.bd/storage/files/1/Publications/PHCensus/Dhaka/District%20Report%20Manikganj.pdf |title=Population and Housing Census 2022 - District Report: Manikganj |date=June 2024 |publisher=[[Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics]] |isbn=978-984-475-255-9 |series=District Series |location=Dhaka |pages=}}</ref>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Islam in Bangladesh|Islam]]|green|91.04}}
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in Bangladesh|Hinduism]]|darkorange|8.91}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.05}}
}}

Manikganj District has 3,575 mosques, 160 temples, 10 churches, five [[Buddhist]] temples, and a pagoda. The Hindu population has fallen from nearly 150,000 in 1981 to 130,000 in 2011, but increased to 139,000 in 2022.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Religion in present-day Manikganj District
! rowspan="2" |Religion
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="1941religion">{{cite web |title=Census of India, 1941 Volume VI Bengal Province |url=https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10973/37365/GIPE-020591.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y |access-date=13 August 2022 |archive-date=24 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924043634/https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10973/37365/GIPE-020591.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|98–99}}{{Efn|1941 figures are for Manikganj subdivision of erstwhile Dhaka district, which roughly corresponds to the present district. District and upazila borders have shifted slightly since then.}}
! colspan="2" |1981<ref name="census2011" />
! colspan="2" |1991<ref name="census2011"/>
! colspan="2" |2001<ref name="census2011" />
! colspan="2" |2011<ref name="census2011" />
! colspan="2" |2022<ref name="2022census-district" />
|-
!{{Abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!%
!{{Abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!%
!{{Abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!%
!{{Abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!%
!{{Abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!%
!{{Abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!%
|-
|[[Islam in Bangladesh|Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15x15px]]
|419,287
|67.84%
|914,748
|86.05%
|1,028,283
|87.45%
|1,155,202
|89.89%
|1,262,215
|90.62%
|1,418,263
|91.04%
|-
|[[Hinduism in Bangladesh|Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|16x16px]]
|198,665
|32.15%
|147,860
|13.91%
|145,893
|12.41%
|129,488
|10.08%
|130,095
|9.34%
|138,867
|8.91%
|-
|Other{{efn|Including [[Jainism]], [[Christianity]], [[Buddhism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Judaism]], [[Ad-Dharmi]]s, or not stated}}
|73
|0.01%
|440
|0.04%
|1,733
|0.14%
|390
|0.03%
|557
|0.04%
|895
|0.05%
|-
!Total Population
!618,025
!100%
!'''1,063,048'''
!100%
!1,175,909
!100%
!1,285,080
!100%
!1,392,867
!100%
!1,558,025
!100%
|}

==Economy==

There are total 166 [[Haat bazaar|haats]] and [[Bazaar|bazars]] in the district, including:

{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* Baira Bazar
* Bahadia Bazar
* Bangala Bazar
* Barangail Bazar
* Butni Bazar
* Diabari Bazar
* Gilonda Bazar
* Gheor Bazar
* Ghosher Bazar
* Ghosta Bazar
* Intazganj Bazar
* Jamsha Bazar
* Jhitka Bazar
* Maluchi Bazar (Balla Bazar)
* Mohadebpur Bazar
* Sakrail Bazar
* Singair Bazar
{{div col end}}

In addition, 54 fairs (''Mela'') are held in Manikganj, including:

{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* Afaz Paglar Mela (Bathaimuri)
* Aziz paglar Mela (Kachidhara)
* Bahadia Boishakhi Mela (Bahadia)
* Baher Paglar Mela (Bangala)
* Baher Paglar Mela (Mohadebpur)
* Baruni Mela (Butni)
* Belal/Billal Paglar Mela (Harganj)
* Joymontop Modhor Mela (Joymontop)
* Kanu Promaniker Mela (Manta, Manikganj Sadar)
* Majhi Barir Mela (Diabari)
* Manikganj Bijoy Mela (Manikganj)
* Poush Mela (Atigram)
* Rowth Jatra Mela (Katigram)
* Sadur Mela (Singair)
* Sadhur Mela (South Jamsha)
* Sadhinota Mela (Maluchi)
* Sonatoni Nobo Torun jubo Songgho Soroswati puja (Katigram)
* Zinda Shah Mela (Jhitka)
* গড়পাড়া Imam Bari Muharramer Mela (Garpara, Manikganj Sadar)
* গড়পাড়া বুড়িপুজোর মেলা (Garpara, Manikganj Sadar)
{{div col end}}

==Places of interest==
* [[Baliati Zamindari]] Home, Saturia

<gallery>
File:Baliati Palace.jpg|Baliati Palace
File:Baliati Palace 2.jpg|Baliati Palace
File:Baliati Palace - backside.jpg|Baliati Palace - backside
</gallery>
* [[Padmar Par, Harirampur]]
* [[Teota Jamindar Bari]], [[Shivalaya upazila]]
* Taota Noboratna Modh, Shibalaya
* Narayan Sadhur Asrom
* Historical Shrine and Mosque of Machaine Village
* Kabiraj Bari
* [[Beutha Bridge]]
* Betila Palace
* Betila Mondir

==Subdivisions==
The district's [[upazila]]s are:
* [[Daulatpur Upazila, Manikganj|Daulatpur Upazila]]
* [[Ghior Upazila]]
* [[Harirampur Upazila]]
* [[Manikganj Sadar Upazila]]
* [[Saturia Upazila]]
* [[Singair Upazila]]
* [[Shivalaya Upazila]]

==Education==
[[File:Govt Debendra college Manikgonj.jpg|thumb|Government Debendra College, Manikgonj]]
There are 27 colleges in the district,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://shed.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/shed.portal.gov.bd/npfblock//college.xls |title=List of Colleges |author= |website=Department of Secondary and Higher Education |publisher=Ministry of Education |access-date=21 March 2019 |archive-date=2 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200502040330/http://shed.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/shed.portal.gov.bd/npfblock//college.xls |url-status=live}}</ref> including [[Government Debendra College]], which was founded in 1942,<ref name="Banglapedia">{{cite book |last=Khan |first=Suruj |year=2012 |chapter=Manikganj District |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Manikganj_District |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=[[Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh]] |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |archive-date=2019-04-25 |access-date=2019-03-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425155308/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Manikganj_District |url-status=live}}</ref> and the private [[NPI University of Bangladesh]], which was founded in 2016. There is one medical school: [[Colonel Malek Medical College]].

According to Banglapedia, notable secondary schools in the district include:<ref name="Banglapedia" />

{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Baliati Iswar Chandra High School]] (founded 1919)
* [[Bajpara High School]] (1995)
* Barangail Gopal Chandra High School (1924)
* Dhankora Girish Institution (1917)
* Diabari High School
* Dhulla B. M. High School (1920)
* Ghior D. N. Pilot High School (1929)
* Hatipara High School
* Ibrahimpur Iswar Chandra High School (1923)
* Jamirtta S. G. High School (1921)
* Jhitka Ananda Mohan High School (1926)
* Joymontop High School (1921)
* Kellai Monsur Uddin ML High School (1956)
* [[Manikganj Government High School]] (1884)
* Manikganj Model High School (1925)
* Muljan High School (1978)
* Nali Bararia Krishna Chandra High School (1915)
* [[Patgram Anath Bandhu Government High School]] (1915)
* [[Teota Academy]] (1891)
* Terosree K. N. Institution (1922)
* Manikganj Technical School & collage
* Ghosta DM High School
{{div col end}}

The madrasa education system includes two fazil madrasas and one kamil madrasa—Manikganj Islamia Kamil Madrasa, founded in 1953.<ref name="Banglapedia" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://xyz.ebmeb.gov.bd/9990/institute-list.html |title=Institute List |author= |website=Bangladesh Madrasah Education Board |publisher=Ministry of Education |access-date=21 March 2019}}</ref>

The technical education system includes the [[Government Textile Vocational Institute Manikganj]].

==Notable people==
* [[Khan Asifur Rahman Agun]] – singer{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}
* [[Begum Badrunnessa Ahmed]] – politician and social worker, was raised by the zamindar of Paril<ref>{{cite book |last=Khan |first=Muazzam Hussain |year=2012 |chapter=Ahmed, Begum Badrunnessa |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Ahmed,_Begum_Badrunnessa |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref>
* [[Naib Uddin Ahmed]] – photographer, was born in Paril village in 1925<ref>{{cite news |last=Hossain |first=Takir |date=25 December 2009 |title=Images that speak |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-119236 |work=The Daily Star}}</ref>
* [[Rafiq Uddin Ahmed]] – Bengali language movement martyr, was born in Paril village in 1926<ref>{{cite book |last=Akbar |first=ASM Rafiqul |year=2012 |chapter=Ahmed, Rafiq Uddin |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Ahmed,_Rafiq_Uddin |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref>
* [[Mir Quasem Ali]] – war criminal, was born in Munshidangi village in 1952<ref>{{cite news |title=Chhatra Shibir founder Mir Quasem buried in Manikganj after hanging for war crimes |url=https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2016/09/04/chhatra-shibir-founder-mir-quasem-buried-in-manikganj-after-hanging-for-war-crimes |work=bdnews24.com |date=4 September 2016 |archive-date=21 March 2019 |access-date=21 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321193509/https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2016/09/04/chhatra-shibir-founder-mir-quasem-buried-in-manikganj-after-hanging-for-war-crimes |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Momtaz Begum]] – singer and politician, was elected to Parliament from constituency [[Manikganj-2]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Manikganj-2 |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/bangladesh-national-election-2018/seats?s=Manikganj-2&d=dhaka |work=The Daily Star |archive-date=2019-04-12 |access-date=2019-03-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412235642/https://www.thedailystar.net/bangladesh-national-election-2018/seats?s=Manikganj-2&d=dhaka |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Amalendu Biswas]] – stage actor, lived in Jabar village<ref>{{cite news |last=Deepita |first=Novera |date=24 September 2004 |title=Serial Biraj Bou conveys a powerful message --Aruna Biswas |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/2004/09/24/d409241402102.htm |work=The Daily Star |access-date=21 March 2019 |archive-date=5 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305012002/http://archive.thedailystar.net/2004/09/24/d409241402102.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Aruna Biswas]] – television and film actress, calls Manikganj her hometown

People From Manikgoanj

2025-11-09T18:01:42Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "Manikgoanj Manikgoanj Category: Manikgoanj District {{cat more|Manikgoanj District}}"

[[Category:Bangladeshi people by district|Manikgoanj]]
[[Category:People from Manikgoanj Division|Manikgoanj]]
[[Category: Manikgoanj District]]
{{cat more|Manikgoanj District}}

Manikgoanj District

2025-11-09T17:52:04Z

Category:Freelancer

2025-11-09T16:59:29Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Self-employed worker with no committed employer}} {{Redirect|Freelance}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}} '''''Freelance''''' (sometimes spelled '''''free-lance''''' or '''''free lance'''''),<ref>{{Dictionary.com|freelance}}</ref> '''''freelancer''''', or '''''freelance worker''''', are terms commonly used for a person who is self-employed and not necessarily committed to a particular employer long-term. Freelanc..."

{{Short description|Self-employed worker with no committed employer}}
{{Redirect|Freelance}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}

'''''Freelance''''' (sometimes spelled '''''free-lance''''' or '''''free lance'''''),<ref>{{Dictionary.com|freelance}}</ref> '''''freelancer''''', or '''''freelance worker''''', are terms commonly used for a person who is [[self-employment|self-employed]] and not necessarily committed to a particular employer long-term. Freelance workers are sometimes represented by a company or a [[employment agency|temporary agency]] that resells freelance labor to clients; others work independently or use professional associations or websites to get work.

While the term ''[[independent contractor]]'' would be used in a {{clarify span|different [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]] of [[English language|English]]|date=September 2024}} to designate the [[tax]] and employment classes of this type of worker, the term "freelancing" is most common in culture and creative industries, and use of this term may indicate participation therein.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hesmondhalgh | first1 = David | last2 = Baker | first2 = Sarah | year = 2010 | title = 'A very complicated version of freedom': Conditions and experiences of creative labour in three cultural industries | journal = Poetics | volume = 38 | issue = 1| pages = 4–20 | doi=10.1016/j.poetic.2009.10.001| hdl = 10072/44740 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

Fields, professions, and industries where freelancing is predominant include: [[music]], [[writing]], [[acting]], [[computer programming]], [[web design]], [[graphic design]], [[Translation|translating]] and [[illustrating]], film and video production, and other forms of [[piece work]] that some cultural theorists consider central to the [[cognitive-cultural economy]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = Digital Labor|last = Scholz|first = Trebor|publisher = Routledge|year = 2012}}</ref>

==Freelance practices==

=== Types of work ===
According to the 2012 Freelance Industry Report compiled primarily about [[North America]] freelancing, nearly half of freelancers do writing work, with 18% of freelancers listing writing as a primary skill, 10% editing/copy-editing, and 10% as copywriting. 20% of freelancers listed their primary skills as design. Next on the list was [[Translation|translating]] (8%), [[web development]] (5.5%), and [[marketing]] (4%).<ref name="Freelance Industry Report 2012">{{cite web|title=Freelance Industry Report 2012|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/ifdconference/2012report/FreelanceIndustryReport2012.pdf|access-date=17 May 2013|archive-date=10 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010183404/https://s3.amazonaws.com/ifdconference/2012report/FreelanceIndustryReport2012.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Gregg|first=Tim|title=The State of the Freelance Economy|url=http://www.deskmag.com/en/the-state-of-the-freelance-economy-freelancers-survey-study-report-2012|access-date=17 May 2013|newspaper=DeskMag|date=14 February 2013|archive-date=13 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513032747/http://www.deskmag.com/en/the-state-of-the-freelance-economy-freelancers-survey-study-report-2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2018, freelancing was projected to grow to $20–$30 billion in the next 5–7 years in [[India]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/with-freelancing-on-the-rise-indias-gig-economy-is-going-strong-report/article10022680.ece|title=With freelancing on the rise, India's gig economy is going strong: report|date=9 January 2018|website=The Hindu Business Line|access-date=31 August 2018|archive-date=13 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513201717/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/with-freelancing-on-the-rise-indias-gig-economy-is-going-strong-report/article10022680.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> and the freelancers in the [[United States|US]] will comprise 40% (approx.) of the workforce at the projected growth rate from the same time.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.inc.com/wanda-thibodeaux/this-survey-of-21000-freelancers-from-170-countries-shows-what-having-no-boss-is-like.html|title=This Survey of 21,000 Freelancers From 170 Countries Shows What Having No Boss Is Like|date=27 October 2017|work=Inc.com|access-date=31 August 2018|archive-date=26 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826090159/https://www.inc.com/wanda-thibodeaux/this-survey-of-21000-freelancers-from-170-countries-shows-what-having-no-boss-is-like.html|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Needs update|date=February 2024}}

=== Compensation ===
Depending on the industry, freelance work practices vary and have changed over time. In some industries such as consulting, freelancers may require clients to sign written [[contract]]s. While in [[journalism]] or writing, freelancers may work for free or do work "on spec" to build their reputations or a relationship with a publication. Some freelancers may provide written estimates of work and request deposits from clients.

Payment for freelance work also depends on industry, skills, experience and location. Freelancers may charge by the day, hour, per piece, or on a per-project basis. Instead of a flat rate or fee, some freelancers have adopted a [[value-based pricing]] method based on the perceived value of the results to the client. By custom, payment arrangements may be upfront, percentage upfront, or upon completion. For more complex projects, a contract may set a payment schedule based on milestones or outcomes. One of the drawbacks of freelancing is that there is no guaranteed payment, and the work can be highly [[precarious work|precarious]]. In order to ensure payment, many freelancers use [[online payment]] platforms to protect themselves or work with local clients that can be held accountable.

=== Copyright ===
The question of ownership of a work's copyright arises when its author produces it on behalf of a client. The matter is governed by copyright law, which varies by country. The default ownership lies with the client in some countries and with the freelancing author in others. The degree to which either moral or economic ownership of a work for hire may be modified contractually varies by country.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Register of Copyrights|date=April 2019|title=Authors, Attribution, and Integrity: Examining Moral Rights in the United States|url=https://www.copyright.gov/policy/moralrights/full-report.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423164515/https://www.copyright.gov/policy/moralrights/full-report.pdf|archive-date=23 April 2019|access-date=2022-01-28|publisher=United States Copyright Office|pages=15–16}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Globalize|date=July 2024|2=the Western world}}
A 2018 McKinsey study found that up to 162 million people in [[Europe]] and the [[United States]] engage in some form of independent work. It represents 20–30 percent of the entire working age population.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Independent work: Choice, necessity, and the gig economy {{!}} McKinsey|url=https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/employment-and-growth/independent-work-choice-necessity-and-the-gig-economy|access-date=2020-10-23|website=www.mckinsey.com|archive-date=3 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403141340/https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/employment-and-growth/independent-work-choice-necessity-and-the-gig-economy|url-status=live}}</ref>

The total number of freelancers in USA is inexact, as of 2013, the most recent governmental report on independent contractors was published in 2005 by the [[U.S. Department of Labor]] [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]]. At that time, there were approximately 10.3 million United States workers (7.4% of the workforce) employed as independent contractors of all sorts.<ref name="indie2005">{{cite web |url=http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2005/jul/wk4/art05.htm |title=Independent contractors in 2005 |date=29 July 2005 |publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics |access-date=21 December 2012 |archive-date=7 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090507083309/http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2005/jul/wk4/art05.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2011, [[Jeffrey Eisenach]], an economist at [[George Mason University]], estimated that number of freelancers had grown by one million.{{citation needed|date=May 2017}} While in 2012, the [[Aberdeen Group, Inc.|Aberdeen Group]], a private research company, estimated that 26% (approx. 81 million) of the United States population was a part of the [[contingent workforce]], a category of casual labor that includes freelancing.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dwyer|first=C|title=Contingent Workforce Management: The Next-Generation Guidebook to Managing the Modern Contingent Workforce Umbrella.|url=http://www.aberdeen.com/Aberdeen-Library/7709/RA-contingent-workforce-management.aspx%22|publisher=Aberdeen Group.|access-date=17 May 2013|archive-date=3 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703061319/http://www.aberdeen.com/removed|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2013, the [[Freelancers Union]] estimated that 1 in 3 workers in the United States was self-employed (approximately 42 million), with more than four million (43%) of those self-employed workers as members of the [[creative class]], a stratum of work specifically associated with freelance industries, such as [[Knowledge worker|knowledge workers]], technologists, professional writers, [[Artist|artists]], entertainers, and media workers.<ref>{{cite web|last=Florida|first=Richard|title=Geography of America's Freelance Economy|url=http://m.theatlanticcities.com/jobs-and-economy/2013/02/geography-americas-freelance-economy/4118/|work=FEB 25, 2013|publisher=The Atlantic|access-date=17 May 2013|archive-date=22 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022184047/http://m.theatlanticcities.com/jobs-and-economy/2013/02/geography-americas-freelance-economy/4118/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2016, the Freelancers Union estimated that 35% of the workforce in the United States was self-employed (approximately 55 million). This workforce earned an estimated $1 trillion from freelancing in 2016—a significant share of the U.S. economy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fu-prod-storage.s3.amazonaws.com/content/None/FreelancinginAmerica2016report.pdf|title=Freelancing in America: 2016|access-date=6 September 2017|archive-date=23 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023235138/https://fu-prod-storage.s3.amazonaws.com/content/None/FreelancinginAmerica2016report.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2017, a study by MBO Partners estimated the total number of self-employed Americans aged 21 and above to be 40.9 million.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.smallbizlabs.com/2017/06/cyclical-and-structural-forces-driving-growth-of-independent-work.html|title=Cyclical and Structural Forces Behind the Growing Independent Workforce|date=13 June 2017|work=Small Business Labs|access-date=16 October 2017|archive-date=17 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017042019/http://www.smallbizlabs.com/2017/06/cyclical-and-structural-forces-driving-growth-of-independent-work.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The total number of freelancers in UK is also inexact; however, figures from the [[Office for National Statistics]] show that the proportion of [[remote work]]ers rose from 9.2% in 2001 to 10.7% in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.consultancy.uk/news/1629/uk-consulting-market-grows-7-per-cent-to-6-billion|title=UK consulting market grows 7 per cent to 6 billion|date=10 March 2015|access-date=21 December 2015|archive-date=22 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222092742/http://www.consultancy.uk/news/1629/uk-consulting-market-grows-7-per-cent-to-6-billion|url-status=live}}</ref> It has been estimated, however, that there are approximately 1.7 million freelancers in the UK.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bell|first=Anna|title=Guide To Freelancers|url=http://www.icsuk.com/blog/ics-guide-to-freelancers/|access-date=20 January 2014|date=22 January 2014|archive-date=1 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201223504/http://www.icsuk.com/blog/ics-guide-to-freelancers/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Freelancing is a gendered form of work.<ref name="Freelance Industry Report 2012" /> The 2012 Freelance Industry Report estimated that more than 71% of freelancers are women between the ages of 30 and 50. Surveys of other specific areas of freelancing have similar trends. Demographic research on [[Amazon Mechanical Turk]] revealed that the majority of its North American workers are women.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ross|first=Joel|author2=Andrew Zaldivar|author3=Lilly Irani|author3-link=Lilly Irani|author4=Bill Tomlinson|title=Who are the Turkers? Worker Demographics in Amazon Mechanical Turk|journal=CHI EA|year=2010|pages=2863–2872|url=http://www.ics.uci.edu/~jwross/pubs/SocialCode-2009-01.pdf|access-date=17 May 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130610104657/http://www.ics.uci.edu/~jwross/pubs/SocialCode-2009-01.pdf|archive-date=10 June 2013}}</ref> Catherine McKercher's research on journalism as a profession has showcased that while media organizations are still male-dominated, the reverse is true for freelance journalists and editors, whose ranks are mainly women.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mendes|first=Kaitlynn|author2=Kumarini Silva|author3=Catherine McKercher|author4=Yan Wub|date=24 August 2009|title=Women, Labor, Media, and the Economy Kaitlynn Mendes|journal=Feminist Media Studies|volume=9|issue=3|pages=369–378|doi=10.1080/14680770903068332|s2cid=216644322 }}</ref>

==Benefits==
Freelancers have a variety of reasons for freelancing, the perceived benefits differ by gender, industry, and lifestyle. For instance, the 2012 Freelance Industry Report reported that men and women freelance for different reasons. Female survey respondents indicated that they prefer the scheduling freedom and flexibility that freelancing offers, while male survey respondents indicated they freelance to follow or pursue personal passions.<ref name="Freelance Industry Report 2012" /> Freelancing also enables people to obtain higher levels of employment in isolated communities.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Denkenberger | first1=D. | last2=Way | first2=J. | last3=Pearce | first3=J. M. | year=2015 | title=Educational Pathways to Remote Employment in Isolated Communities | journal=Journal of Human Security | volume=11 | issue=1| pages = 34–44 | doi=10.12924/johs2015.11010034 | doi-access=free }}</ref> The ability to pick and choose who the freelancer works with is another benefit. The freelancer interviews a potential client and they get to pick whether or not to work with that individual or company.

Freelancing is also taken up by workers who have been laid-off, who cannot find full-time employment,<ref name="Freelance Industry Report 2012" /> or for those industries such as [[journalism]] which are relying increasingly on contingent labor rather than full-time staff.<ref name="McKercher 2009 370-374">{{cite journal|last=McKercher|first=Catherine|title=Writing on the Margins: Precarity and the Freelance Journalist|journal=Feminist Media Studies|date=September 2009|volume=3|issue=9|pages=370–374}}</ref> Freelancers also consist of students trying to make ends meet during the semester. In interviews, and on blogs about freelancing, freelancers list choice and flexibility as a benefit.

==Drawbacks==
Freelancing, like other forms of [[Casual employment|casual labor]], can be [[precarious work]].<ref name=":1" /> Websites, books, portals and organizations for freelancers often feature advice on getting and keeping a steady work stream.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thesimpledollar.com/financial-wellness/ultimate-freelancers-guide/|title=The Ultimate Freelancer's Guide: Everything You Need to Know About Getting Jobs, Getting Paid, and Getting Ahead|last=Dollar|first=Staff|website=thesimpledollar|access-date=25 November 2019|archive-date=11 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811221045/https://www.thesimpledollar.com/financial-wellness/ultimate-freelancers-guide/|url-status=live}}</ref> Beside the lack of job security, many freelancers also report the ongoing hassle of dealing with employers who don't pay on time and the possibility of long periods without work. Additionally, freelancers do not receive employment benefits such as a [[pension]], [[sick leave]], paid holidays, bonuses or [[health insurance]], which can be a serious hardship for freelancers residing in countries such as the US without [[universal health care]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Bornstein|first=David|title=Safety Nets for Freelancers (Opinionator)|url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/12/06/safety-nets-for-freelancers/|access-date=17 May 2013|newspaper=New York Times|date=6 December 2011|archive-date=1 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401015318/http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/12/06/safety-nets-for-freelancers/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Freelancers often earn less than their employed counterparts, although sometimes the opposite is true. While most freelancers have at least ten years of experience prior to working independently,<ref name="Freelance Industry Report 2012" /> experienced freelancers do not always earn an income equal to that of full-time employment. Feedback from members suggests that web portals such as [[Freelancer.com]] tend to attract low-paying clients that, although demanding very high standards, pay ~$10 per hour or less. Low-cost suppliers frequently offer to work at rates as low as $1–$2 per hour. Because most projects require [[bidding]], professionals will not bid because they refuse to work at such rates. This has the effect of reducing the overall quality of the services provided.

According to research conducted in 2005 by the Professional Writers Association of Canada on Canadian journalists and editors, there is a wage gap between staff and freelance journalists. While the typical Canadian full-time freelancer is female, between 35 and 55, holding a college diploma and often a graduate degree, she typically earns about $29,999 Canadian dollars before taxes. Meanwhile, a staff journalist of similar age and experience level working full-time at outlets such as the ''[[Ottawa Citizen]]'' or ''[[Montreal Gazette]]'' newspapers, earned at least $63,500 Canadian dollars that year, the top scale rate negotiated by the union, [[The Newspaper Guild]]-Communications Workers of America.<ref name="McKercher 2009 370-374" /> Given the gendered stratification of journalism, with more women working as freelancers than men, this disparity in income can be interpreted as a form of [[gender pay gap]]. The [[Professional Writers Association of Canada]] report showed no significant difference between the earnings of male and female freelancers, though part-time freelancers generally earned less than full-time freelancers.<ref>{{cite web|title=2005 Canadian Professional Writers Survey|url=http://www.pwac.ca/files/PDF/PWACsurvey.pdf|publisher=Professional Writers Association of Canada|access-date=17 May 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716093907/http://www.pwac.ca/files/PDF/PWACsurvey.pdf|archive-date=16 July 2007}}</ref>

[[Remote work]] is often cited as an attractive feature of freelancing, yet research suggests that it introduces new sets of constraints for the process of doing work, particularly for married women with families, who continue to bear the brunt of household chores and childcare despite increases in their paid work time.<ref>{{cite web |editor-last=Fang |editor-first=Fang |title=Division of Household Labor |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/page/gas/collections/classroom/household-labor |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |access-date=8 February 2022 |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-ur

Cox's Bazar

2025-11-08T17:26:13Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|City in Bangladesh}} {{Other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}} {{EngvarB|date=July 2016}} {{Infobox settlement | official_name = Cox's Bazar | native_name = কক্সবাজার | settlement_type = City | total_type = | nickname = | motto = | coordinates = {{coord|21|25|38|N|92|00|18|E|region:BD|display=inline,title}} | image_skyline = {{multiple image | border = inf..."

{{Short description|City in Bangladesh}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Cox's Bazar
| native_name = কক্সবাজার
| settlement_type = [[City]]
| total_type =
| nickname =
| motto =
| coordinates = {{coord|21|25|38|N|92|00|18|E|region:BD|display=inline,title}}
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 280
| image_style =
| perrow = 1/2/2/2/2/1
| image1 = A dusk at Cox's Bazar sea beach.jpg
| caption1 = [[Cox's Bazar beach]]
| image2 = View of cox's bazar city.jpg
| caption2 = [[Hotel–Motel zone]]
| image3 = Coxs Bazar Rail Station (cropped).jpg
| caption3 = [[Cox's Bazar railway station]]
| image4 = Cox's Bazar Airport Shevelev-1.jpg
| caption4 = [[Cox's Bazar Airport]]
| image5 = Cox's Bazar–Tekhnaf Marine Drive (7).jpg
| caption5 = [[Cox's Bazar–Teknaf Marine Drive]]
| image6 =
| caption6 =
}}
| pushpin_map = Bangladesh Chittagong division#Bangladesh
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_caption =
| image_flag =
| flag_size =
| image_seal = Cox's Bazar Municipality.png
| seal_size = 100px
| image_shield =
| shield_size =
| image_map =
| map_caption = Location of Cox's Bazar in Bangladesh
| subdivision_type = [[Country]]
| subdivision_name = {{Country|Bangladesh}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Divisions of Bangladesh|Division]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Chittagong Division|Chittagong]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Districts of Bangladesh|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Cox's Bazar District|Cox's Bazar]]
| government_footnotes =
| government_type = [[Mayor–council government|Mayor–Council]]
| governing_body = {{nowrap|Municipality}}
| leader_title = [[Mayor|Administrator]]
| leader_name = Rubaiya Afroz
| leader_title2 =
| leader_name2 =
| established_title = Establishment
| established_date =
| unit_pref =
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 23.4
| area_land_km2 =
| area_water_km2 =
| area_water_percent =
| area_urban_km2 =
| area_metro_km2 =
| population_as_of = 2022
| population_total = 196374
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_density_sq_mi =
| population_metro =
| population_density_metro_km2 =
| population_demonym =
| timezone = [[Bangladesh Standard Time|BST]]
| utc_offset = +6
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 3
| elevation_ft = 10
| postal_code_type = [[List of postal codes in Bangladesh|Postal code]]
| postal_code = 4700
| area_code_type = [[Telephone numbers in Bangladesh|Calling code]]
| area_code = +880 34
| demographics_type1 = [[Languages of Bangladesh|Languages]]
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]{{*}}[[Bangladeshi English|English]]
| demographics1_title2 = Regional
| demographics1_info2 = [[Chittagonian language|Chittagonian]]
| demographics_type2 =
| demographics2_footnotes = <ref name="BBS">{{cite web | url=https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5-8b4d-4dac-a76c-a9be4e85828c | title=বাংলাদেশ পরিসংখ্যান ব্যুরো }}</ref>
| demographics2_title1 =
| demographics2_info1 =
| blank_name_sec1 = [[UN/LOCODE]]
| blank_info_sec1 = BD CXB
| blank1_name_sec1 = {{nowrap|[[GDP]]}} (2022)
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|PPP]] {{IncreasePositive}} $4.2 billion [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|Nominal]] {{IncreasePositive}} $1.5 billion
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[Human Development Index|HDI]] (2022)
| blank3_info_sec1 = 0.648<ref>{{cite web |url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/shdi/BGD/?interpolation=0&extrapolation=0&nearest_real=0 |title=Sub-national HDI – Area Database – Global Data Lab |website=hdi.globaldatalab.org |language=en |access-date=12 July 2025}}</ref> {{color|#FFCC33|medium-low}} · [[List of regions of Bangladesh by Human Development Index|9th of 20]]
| blank4_name_sec1 = [[Police]]
| blank4_info_sec1 =
| blank5_name_sec1 = [[Airport]]
| blank5_info_sec1 = [[Cox's Bazar International Airport]]
| blank6_name_sec1 = Planning Authority
| blank6_info_sec1 = [[Cox's Bazar Development Authority]]
| blank7_name_sec1 = Water Supply and Sewerage Authority
| blank7_info_sec1 = Cox's Bazar Paurashava Water Supply Dept.
| website = [https://www.coxsbazar.gov.bd/ coxsbazar.gov.bd]
| blank_emblem_size = 120px
| blank_emblem_type = Cox's Bazar Municipal Seal
| seal_alt = Official Seal of the Cox's Bazar Municipality
| leader_party =
}}
{{Contains special characters|Bengali}}

'''Cox's Bazar''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|ɒ|k|s|ɪ|z|_|b|ə|ˈ|z|ɑːr}}; {{langx|bn|কক্সবাজার|Kôksbājār}}; {{IPA|bn|kɔksbadʒaɾ|pron}}) is a city, fishing port, tourism centre, and the headquarters of the [[Cox's Bazar District]] and [[Cox's Bazar Sadar Upazila]] in south-eastern [[Bangladesh]]. The city has a population of about 196,000 making it the [[List of cities and towns in Bangladesh|26th largest city]] in [[Bangladesh]]. [[Cox's Bazar Beach]], the longest uninterrupted naturally occurring sea beach in the world, is a major tourist attraction.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rongmei |first=Precious|title=Have you been to the longest beach in the world? |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/have-you-been-to-the-longest-beach-in-the-world/articleshow/102904149.cms |access-date=2023-09-12 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2012-12-26 |title=Bangladesh's Cox's Bazar: A paradise being lost? |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19340259 |access-date=2022-04-30}}</ref>

==Administration==
The city is administered by a [[List of municipal corporations in Bangladesh |Pourashava]] named Cox's Bazar Municipality. It covers an area of {{convert|23.4|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} with 58 [[mahalla]]s and 27 wards and as of 2022 had a population of nearly 200,000.<ref name="citypopulation">{{cite web |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/Bangladesh-UA.html?cityid=11835 |title=Area, Population of Cox's Bazar |website=citypopulation.de}}</ref> Cox's Bazar is connected by road and air with the city of [[Chattogram]].<ref>{{cite web|date=12 January 2015 |title=Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Coxs-Bazar |access-date=14 January 2008 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |script-title=bn:কক্সবাজার জেলা |trans-title=Cox's Bazar district |url=http://www.coxsbazar.gov.bd/ |access-date=4 December 2018 |website=coxsbazar.gov.bd |language=bn}}</ref>

==Etymology==
Cox's Bazar derives its name from Captain [[Hiram Cox]], an officer of the [[British East India Company]] and Superintendent of Palongkee outpost. To commemorate his role in refugee rehabilitation work, a market was established and named after him.

Cox's Bazar is also known by the name '''''Panowa''''', which translates literally as "yellow flower." An old name was "'''Palongkee'''".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/mar/06/rohingya-refugee-camp-fire-bangladesh-coxs-bazar |title=Huge fire at Rohingya refugee camp leaves thousands without shelter | Bangladesh | the Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://refugees.org/a-glimpse-at-camp-life-in-coxs-bazar-examining-aid-response-and-distilling-solutions/ |title=A Glimpse at Camp Life in Cox's Bazar: Examining Aid Response |date=13 April 2023}}</ref>

==History==
During the early 9th century, the greater Chittagong area, including Cox's Bazar, was under the rule of [[Rakhine State|Arakan]] kings until its conquest by the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] in 1666.<ref name=Banglapedia-District/> When the Mughal Prince [[Shah Shuja (Mughal)|Shah Shuja]] was passing through the hilly terrain of the present-day Cox's Bazar on his way to Arakan, he was attracted to its scenic and captivating beauty. He commanded his forces to camp there. His retinue of one thousand [[palanquin]]s stopped there for some time. A place named ''[[Dulahazara Union|Dulahazara]],'' meaning "one thousand palanquins," still exists in the area. After the Mughals, the place came under the control of the Tipras and the Arakanese, followed by the Portuguese and then the [[British Empire|British]].

The name Cox's Bazar originated from British [[East India Company]] (EIC) official [[Hiram Cox]], who was appointed as the Superintendent of Palonki (today's Cox's Bazar) outpost. He succeeded [[Warren Hastings]], who became the [[Governor of Bengal]] following the passage of the [[Regulating Act 1773]]. Cox embarked upon the task of rehabilitation and settlement for the [[Arakanese people|Arakanese]] refugees in the area.<ref name="Haksar2009">{{cite book |author=Nandita Haksar |title=Rogue Agent: How India's Military Intelligence Betrayed the Burmese Resistance |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vkXJveQavMEC&pg=PT55 |year=2009 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-306489-3 |pages=55–56}}</ref> He rehabilitated many refugees in the area, but died in 1799 before finishing his work. To commemorate him, a market was established and named after him, called Cox's Bazar. Cox's Bazar was first established in 1854 and became a municipality in 1869.<ref name=Banglapedia-District>{{cite book |last=Siddiqi |first=Mohammad Mahibbullah |year=2012 |chapter=Cox's Bazar District |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Cox%E2%80%99s_Bazar_District |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref>

After the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], [[Company rule in India]] came to an end and was replaced by the [[The Crown|British Crown]]. As a result, Cox's Bazar was declared a district of the [[Eastern Bengal and Assam|Bengal Province]] under the British Crown.

===20th century===
[[File:Cox's Bazar Map.jpg|thumb|270px|right|Cox's Bazar Map from Series U542, US Army Map Service, 1955]]
Just after the end of British rule in India in 1947, Cox's Bazar became part of [[East Pakistan]]. [[Fazlul Karim (lawyer)|Captain Advocate Fazlul Karim]], the first post-independence chairman of Cox's Bazar Municipality, established the Tamarisk Forest along the beach. He wanted to attract tourists as well as to protect the beach from [[tsunami]]s. He donated much of his father-in-law's and his own lands as sites for constructing a public library and a town hall. Karim was inspired to build Cox's Bazar as a tourist spot after seeing beaches of Bombay and Karachi, and was a resort pioneer in developing Cox's Bazar as a destination. Karim established a maternity hospital, the stadium and the drainage system by procuring grants from the [[Ford Foundation]] and [[Rockefeller Foundation]] through correspondence. T. H. Matthews, the principal of the Dacca Engineering College (1[[Rockefeller Foundation|–]]49~1954), was a friend who had helped him in these fundraising efforts. Engineer Chandi Charan Das was the government civil engineer who worked on all these projects.

In 1959 the municipality was turned into a town committee.<ref name=Banglapedia-District/> In 1961 the [[Geological Survey of Pakistan]] initiated investigation of radioactive minerals like [[monazite]] around the Cox's Bazar sea-beach area.<ref name="Bpedia BSHM">{{cite book |last=Chowdhury |first=Sifatul Quader |year=2012 |chapter=Beach Sand Heavy Mineral |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Beach_Sand_Heavy_Mineral |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref>

In 1971, Cox's Bazar [[wharf]] was used as a naval port by the [[Pakistan Navy]]'s [[gunboats]]. This and the nearby [[airstrip]] of the [[Pakistan Air Force]] were the scene of intense shelling by the [[Indian Navy]] during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]. During the war, Pakistani soldiers killed many people in the town, including eminent lawyer Jnanendralal Chowdhury. The killing of two freedom fighters named Farhad and Subhash at Badar Mokam is also recorded in history.<ref name=Banglapedia-Upazila>{{cite book |last=Alam |first=Badiul |year=2012 |chapter=Cox's Bazar Sadar Upazila |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Cox%E2%80%99s_Bazar_Sadar_Upazila |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=[[Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh]] |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref>

After Bangladesh's independence, Cox's Bazar started to receive administrative attention. In 1972 the town committee of Cox's Bazar was once again turned into a municipality. In 1975, The government of Bangladesh established a pilot plant at Kalatali.<ref name="Bpedia BSHM"/> In 1984, Cox's Bazar subdivision was promoted to a district, and five years later (in 1989) the Cox's Bazar municipality was elevated to B-grade.<ref name=Banglapedia-District/> In 1994 (jobs) the Marine Fisheries and Technology Station (MFTS) was established at Cox's Bazar. MFTS is a research station of [[Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute]] (BFRI) headquartered in [[Mymensingh District|Mymensingh]]. The station covers a land area of four hectares and contains five laboratories.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kabir |first=SM Humayun |year=2012 |chapter=Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Bangladesh_Fisheries_Research_Institute |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref>

===21st century===
In September 2012 the municipality was the site of the [[2012 Ramu violence|Cox's Bazar and Ramu riots]], where local Muslims attacked the Buddhist community over an alleged [[Quran desecration]] posted to Facebook.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangladesh rampage over Facebook Koran image |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19780692 |work=BBC News |date=30 September 2012 |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref>

In 2017, hundreds of thousands of [[Rohingya]] refugees from Myanmar arrived in [[Cox's Bazar District]], amounting to 725,000 in October 2018; the resulting [[Kutupalong refugee camp]] became the largest refugee camp in the world.<ref name="nrc">{{Cite web |title=Cox's Bazar: The world's biggest refugee settlement |url=https://www.nrc.no/news/2018/august/coxs-bazar-the-worlds-largest-refugee-settlement/ |date=21 May 2020 |website=Norwegian Refugee Council |access-date=24 August 2018}}</ref>

On 14 May 2020, the first confirmed case of [[Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]] was detected among the 860,000 refugees who lived in Cox's Bazar district.<ref name="unhcr">{{Cite web |title=Public health response in Rohingya refugee settlements on alert as first coronavirus case confirmed |url=https://www.unhcr.org/news/briefing/2020/5/5ebe42044/public-health-response-rohingya-refugee-settlements-alert-first-coronavirus.html |last=Refugees |first=United Nations High Commissioner for |date=15 May 2020 |website=UNHCR |language=en |access-date=21 May 2020}}</ref>

In March 2021, a fire at the refugee camp left 15 dead and some 400 missing and displaced more than 45,000 mostly Rohingya refugees.<ref>Ramy Inocencio: [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/rohingya-refugee-camp-fire-bangladesh-coxs-bazar-myanmar-deaths-missing/ At least 15 killed by huge fire at Rohingya refugee camp in Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh] 23 March 2021 ''www.cbsnews.com'' accessed 23 March 2021</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-03-25|title=UN emergency fund allocates $14 million for Rohingya refugees left homeless by massive fire|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/03/1088222|access-date=2021-03-28|website=UN News|language=en}}</ref>

Additionally, the government is constructing 268 kilometers of roads to enhance rural connectivity in the region. This initiative includes building 40 new cyclone shelters, a relief administration and distribution center, and other facilities to bolster disaster resilience and support local populations.{{citation needed|date=March 2025}}

In 2023 Bangladesh evacuated over 50,000 people in Cox's Bazar to safe shelters as [[Cyclone Mocha]] approached.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-13 |title=50,000 people evacuated in Cox's Bazar as cyclone Mocha approaches |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/nation/2023/05/13/cyclone-mocha-coxs-bazar-coastal-residents-being-shifted-to-shelters |access-date=2023-05-13 |website=Dhaka Tribune}}</ref>

During the [[July Revolution (Bangladesh)|protest of 2024]], around 10,000 tourists were stuck in Cox's Bazar, who were later transported by plane and army patrol.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-27 |title=Cox's Bazar, fear of job loss of 20,000 workers without tourists |url=https://www.barta24.com/details/national-en/236918/cox-s-bazar--fear-of-job-loss-of-20-000-workers-without-tourists |access-date=2025-03-04 |website=Barta24 |language=en}}</ref>

==Geography and climate==
Cox's Bazar is located {{convert|150|km|mi|abbr=on}} south of the divisional headquarter city of [[Chittagong]]. Cox's Bazar town has an area of {{convert|6.85|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, and is bounded by Bakkhali River on the north and East, [[Bay of Bengal]] in the West, and Jhilwanj Union in the south.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.coxsbazar.gov.bd/site/page/9314edbb-2144-11e7-8f57-286ed488c766/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%20%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF |script-title=bn:ভৌগলিক পরিচিতি – কক্সবাজার জেলা |trans-title=Geographical Introduction - Cox's Bazar District |website=coxsbazar.gov.bd |language=bn |access-date=4 December 2018 |archive-date=7 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181207135141/http://coxsbazar.gov.bd/site/page/9314edbb-2144-11e7-8f57-286ed488c766/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%20%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF }}</ref>

The [[beach in Cox's Bazar]] has a gentle slope and with a length of {{convert|120|km|mi|abbr=on}} and is one of the longest natural sea beaches in the world.

Cox's Bazar lies on a coastal plain in the southeastern corner of Bangladesh. From above, the plain appears to bulge out into the Bay of Bengal. Along the shore is an extensive area of beach and [[dune]]s. Most of the city is built on a [[floodplain]] that is lower in elevation than the dunes, making it more susceptible to flooding due to [[cyclone]]s and [[storm surge]]s. The Cox's Bazar coastal plain was formed after the sea reached its present level around 6,500 years ago, with the area of the current floodplain originally forming a sediment sink that has since been gradually filled in by the Bakkhali river as well as smaller streams coming down from the hills.<ref name="Alam et al">{{cite journal |last1=Alam |first1=M.S. |last2=Huq |first2=N.E. |last3=Rashid |first3=M.S. |title=Morphology and Sediments of the Cox's Bazar Coastal Plain, South-East Bangladesh |journal=Journal of Coastal Research |date=1999 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=902–908 |jstor=4299010 }}</ref>

The climate of Bangladesh is mostly determined by its location in the [[tropical monsoon climate]] region: high temperatures, heavy rainfall, and generally excessive humidity, with distinct seasonal variations.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Rafique |year=2012 |chapter=Climate |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Climate |editor1-last=Islam |

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Mother

2025-11-08T09:59:49Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Female parent}} {{Redirect-several|Mother|Mothers|Mom|Mum|Mothering|Motherhood|Maternity}} 1920}} {{pp-semi|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} Statue of a mother with children at the [[Monumental Cemetery of Staglieno in Genoa]] A '''moth..."

{{Short description|Female parent}}
{{Redirect-several|Mother|Mothers|Mom|Mum|Mothering|Motherhood|Maternity}}
[[File:Portrait of a woman holding a baby (I0024828).jpg|upright|thumb|Portrait of a woman holding her young child, {{circa|1900|1920}}]]
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
[[File:Cimitero di Staglieno, statue of mother and children-img114.jpg|upright|thumb|Statue of a mother with children at the [[Monumental Cemetery of Staglieno]] in [[Genoa]]]]
A '''mother''' is the [[female]] [[parent]] of a [[child]]. A [[woman]] may be considered a mother by virtue of having given [[childbirth|birth]], by raising a child who may or may not be her biological [[offspring]], or by supplying her ovum for [[fertilisation]] in the case of [[gestational surrogacy]].

A biological mother is the female genetic contributor to the creation of the infant, through [[sexual intercourse]] or [[egg donation]]. A biological mother may have legal obligations to a child not raised by her, such as an obligation of monetary support. An adoptive mother is a female who has become the child's parent through the legal process of [[adoption]]. A putative mother is a female whose biological relationship to a child is alleged but has not been established. A [[stepmother]] is a non-biological female parent married to a child's preexisting parent, and may form a family unit but generally does not have the legal rights and responsibilities of a parent in relation to the child.

A [[father]] is the [[male]] counterpart of a mother. Women who are [[pregnant]] may be referred to as expectant mothers or mothers-to-be.<ref>{{cite web|title=definition of mother from Oxford Dictionaries Online|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/mother?rskey=YplwRN&result=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815101848/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/mother?rskey=YplwRN&result=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 15, 2011|work=Oxford Dictionaries|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary|title=Define Mother at Dictionary.com|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mother|dictionary=Dictionary.com}}</ref> The process of becoming a mother has been referred to as "matrescence".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sacks |first1=Alexandra |title=The Birth of a Mother |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/08/well/family/the-birth-of-a-mother.html |access-date=9 September 2018 |date=8 May 2017 |language=en |archive-date=7 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907032325/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/08/well/family/the-birth-of-a-mother.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[adjective]] "maternal" refers to a mother and comparatively to "paternal" for a [[father]]. The [[verb]] "to mother" means to procreate or to sire a child, or to provide care for a child, from which also derives the noun "mothering".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Definition of MOTHER|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mother|access-date=2022-02-12|website=Merriam-Webster |language=en|archive-date=2022-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416203833/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mother|url-status=live}}</ref> Related [[term of endearment|terms of endearment]] are ''mom'' (''mama'', ''mommy''), ''mum'' (''mummy''), ''mumsy'', ''mamacita'' (''ma'', ''mam'') and ''mammy''. A female role model that children can look up to is sometimes referred to as a ''mother-figure''.

==Types of motherhood==
[[File:Breast feeding cat.ogv|upright|thumb|A mama cat feeding her kittens]]
[[File:Crude Birth Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of countries by crude birth rate]]
[[File:Total Fertility Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Map of countries by fertility rate]]
[[File:Share of births by age of mother, Europe (UN), OWID.png|thumb|Share of births by age of mother in Europe over time<ref>{{cite web |title=Share of births by age of mother |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-births-by-age-of-mother?country=~Europe+%28UN%29 |website=Our World in Data |access-date=25 May 2025 |language=en}}</ref>]]
[[File:Mother and child. Gandola Monastery. Lahaul, India. 2004.jpg|thumb|Mother and child. Gandola Monastery, [[Lahaul]], India.]]

=== Biological mother ===
Biological motherhood for [[human]]s, as in other [[mammal]]s, occurs when a [[pregnant]] female gestates a fertilized ovum (the "egg"). A female can become pregnant through [[sexual intercourse]] after she has begun to [[ovulate]]. In well-nourished girls, [[menarche]] (the first [[menstrual cycle|menstrual period]]) usually takes place around the age of 12 or 13.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mishra |first1=Gita D. |last2=Cooper |first2=Rachel |last3=Tom |first3=Sarah E. |last4=Kuh |first4=Diana |year=2009 |title=Early Life Circumstances and Their Impact on Menarche and Menopause |url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/589004_3 |website=Medscape |series=5(2) |publisher=Women's Health |pages=175–190 |access-date=2018-08-27 |archive-date=2009-06-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606093904/http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/589004_3 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Typically, a [[fetus]] develops from the viable [[zygote]], resulting in an [[embryo]]. [[Gestation]] occurs in the woman's [[uterus]] until the fetus (assuming it is carried to [[Pregnancy duration|term]]) is sufficiently developed to be born. In humans, gestation is often around 9 months in duration, after which the woman experiences labor and gives birth. This is not always the case, however, as some babies are born [[preterm birth|prematurely]], late, or in the case of [[stillbirth]], do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces [[milk]] via the [[lactation]] process. The mother's [[breast milk]] is the source of [[antibodies]] for the infant's [[immune system]], and commonly the sole source of nutrition for newborns before they are able to eat and digest other foods; older infants and toddlers may continue to be breastfed, in combination with other foods, which should be introduced from approximately six months of age.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pregnancy-and-baby/solid-foods-weaning/|title=Your baby's first solid foods|date=2017-12-21|website=nhs.uk|language=en|access-date=2018-12-17|archive-date=2012-03-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318105745/http://www.nhs.uk/Planners/birthtofive/Pages/Weaningfirststeps.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Childlessness]] is the state of not having children. Childlessness may have personal, social or political significance. Childlessness may be [[voluntary childlessness]], which occurs by choice, or may be involuntary due to health problems or social circumstances. Motherhood is usually voluntary, but may also be the result of [[forced pregnancy]], such as [[pregnancy from rape]]. Unwanted motherhood occurs especially in cultures which practice [[forced marriage]] and [[child marriage]].

=== Non-biological mother ===
''Mother'' can often apply to a woman other than the biological parent, especially if she fulfills the main social role in raising the child. This is commonly either an [[adoptive]] mother or a [[stepmother]] (the biologically unrelated [[Significant other|partner]] of a child's [[father]]). The term "[[othermother]]" or "other mother" is also used in some contexts for women who provide care for a child not biologically their own in addition to the child's primary mother.

Adoption, in various forms, has been practiced throughout history, even predating human civilization.<ref name="Conn2013">{{cite book|author=Peter Conn|title=Adoption: A Brief Social and Cultural History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoUh9LvIzRcC&pg=PA25|date=28 January 2013|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-33390-2|pages=25–64}}</ref> Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive [[statutes]] and [[regulations]]. In recent decades, [[international adoption]]s have become more and more common.

[[Adoption in the United States]] is common and relatively easy from a legal point of view (compared to other Western countries).<ref>{{cite news|last=Jardine|first=Cassandra|title=Why adoption is so easy in America|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/3354960/Why-adoption-is-so-easy-in-America.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/3354960/Why-adoption-is-so-easy-in-America.html |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=Telegraph|date=31 Oct 2007}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 2001, with over 127,000 adoptions, the US accounted for nearly half of the total number of adoptions worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/policy/child-adoption.pdf |title=Child Adoption : Trends and Policies |publisher=Un.org |access-date=2015-07-01 |archive-date=2022-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324001923/https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/policy/child-adoption.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Surrogate mother===
{{Main|Surrogacy}}
A surrogate mother is a woman who bears a child that came from another woman's fertilized ovum on behalf of a couple unable to give birth to children. Thus the surrogate mother carries and gives birth to a child that she is not the biological mother of. Surrogate motherhood became possible with advances in [[reproductive technologies]], such as [[In vitro fertilisation|in vitro fertilization]].

Not all women who become pregnant via in vitro fertilization are surrogate mothers. Surrogacy involves both a genetic mother, who provides the ovum, and a gestational (or surrogate) mother, who carries the child to term.

=== Lesbian and bisexual motherhood ===
The possibility for [[lesbian]] and [[bisexual]] women in [[same-sex relationship]]s to become mothers has increased over the past few decades{{when|date=October 2014}} due to technological developments. Modern [[LGBT parenting|lesbian parenting]] originated with women who were in heterosexual relationships who later identified as lesbian or bisexual, as changing attitudes provided more acceptance for non-heterosexual relationships. Other ways for such women to become mothers is through adopting, [[foster parent]]ing or in vitro fertilization.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lesbian parenting: issues, strengths and challenges|url=http://find.galegroup.com/gtx/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=AONE&docId=A96237890&source=gale&userGroupName=wash_main&version=1.0|access-date=2011-01-25}}</ref><ref name="hooks2000">{{Cite book|author=Mezey, Nancy J|url=https://archive.org/details/newchoicesnewfam0049meze|title=New Choices, New Families: How Lesbians Decide about Motherhood|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8018-9000-0|location=Baltimore|url-access=registration}}</ref>

=== Transgender motherhood ===
{{about|transgender women who are parents|pregnancy in transgender men and nonbinary people|Transgender pregnancy|section=yes}}
[[Trans woman|Transgender women]] may have biological children with a partner by utilizing their sperm to fertilize an egg and form an embryo.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Halim|first=Shakera|date=2019-08-05|title=Study shows sperm production for transgender women could still be possible|url=https://www.healtheuropa.eu/sperm-production-transgender-women/92733/|access-date=2021-12-12|website=Health Europa|language=en-GB|archive-date=2021-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212232143/https://www.healtheuropa.eu/sperm-production-transgender-women/92733/|url-status=usurped}}</ref><ref name=":112">{{Cite web|title=Reproductive Options for Transgender Individuals|url=https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/transgender-reproductive-options|access-date=2021-12-12|website=Yale Medicine|language=en|archive-date=2021-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212214702/https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/transgender-reproductive-options|url-status=live}}</ref> For transgender women, there is currently no accessible way to carry a child. However, research is being done on [[Uterus transplantation|uterus transplants]], which could potentially allow transgender women to carry and give birth to children through [[Caesarean section]]. Other types of motherhood include adoption or foster parenting. However, adoption agencies often refuse to work with transgender parents or are reluctant to do so.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kinkler|first1=Lori A.|last2=Goldberg|first2=Abbie E.|date=2011-10-01|title=Working With What We've Got: Perceptions of Barriers and Supports Among Small-Metropolitan Same-Sex Adopting Couples|journal=Family Relations|volume=60|issue=4|pages=387–403|doi=10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00654.x|issn=0197-6664|pmc=3176589|pmid=21949461}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Montero|first=Darrel|date=2014-05-20|title=Attitudes Toward Same-Gender Adoption and Parenting: An Analysis of Surveys from 16 Countries|url=https://advancesinsocialwork.iupui.edu/index.php/advancesinsocialwork/article/view/16139|journal=Advances in Social Work|volume=15|issue=2|pages=444–459|doi=10.18060/16139|issn=2331-4125|access-date=2021-12-12|archive-date=2021-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212232142/https://advancesinsocialwork.iupui.edu/index.php/advancesinsocialwork/article/view/16139|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Social role==
{{See also|Sociology of the family#Sociology of motherhood}}
[[File:Sikkim 1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sikkimese people|Sikkimese]] mother with child]]
[[File:Percentage of birth to unmarried women, selected countries, 1980 and 2007.png|upright|thumb|Percentage of births to unmarried women, selected countries, 1980 and 2007<ref name="non_mar1">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db18.htm|title=Changing Patterns of Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States|work=CDC/National Center for Health Statistics|date=May 13, 2009|access-date=September 24, 2011|archive-date=September 6, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906063823/http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db18.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
[[File:Mother and children. Mahabalipuram.jpg|upright|thumb|Mother and children ([[Mahabalipuram]], India)]]
The social roles associated with motherhood are variable across time, culture, and social class.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01192.x | volume=62 | title=Conceiving and Investigating Motherhood: The Decade's Scholarship | journal=Journal of Marriage and Family | year=2000 | pages=1192–1207| last1=Arendell | first1=Terry | issue=4 }}</ref> Historically, the role of women was confined to some extent to being a mother and wife, with women being expected to dedicate most of their energy to these roles, and to spend most of their time taking care of the home. In many cultures, women received significant help in performing these tasks from older female relatives, such as mothers in law or their own mothers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://biology.unm.edu/fasmith/Web_Page_PDFs/Smith_Brown_1996.pdf |title=The Changing Role of Women in North American Mammalogy |publisher=Biology.unm.edu |access-date=2015-07-01 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104934/http://biology.unm.edu/fasmith/Web_Page_PDFs/Smith_Brown_1996.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Olga Engdahl 1951.jpg|thumb|upright|Olga Pearson Engdahl was ''American Mother of the Year'' in 1963.<ref>[http://www.americanmothers.org/past-national-mothers-of-the-year Website list] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323130748/http://www.americanmothers.org/past-national-mothers-of-the-year |date=2011-03-23 }}</ref>]]

Regarding [[women in the workforce]], mothers are said to often follow a "[[mommy track]]" rather than being entirely "[[career women]]". Mothers may be [[Housewife|stay at home mothers]] or [[Working parent|working mothers]]. In recent decades there has been an increase in [[Stay-at-home dad|stay at home fathers]] too. Social views on these arrangements vary significantly by culture: in Europe for instance, in German-speaking countries there is a strong tradition of mothers exiting the workforce and being homemakers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/26128/540.population.societies.2017.january.en.pdf|title=Has childlessness peaked in Europe?|website=Ined.fr|access-date=17 December 2017|archive-date=21 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221105932/https://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/26128/540.population.societies.2017.january.en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Mothers have historically fulfilled the primary role in raising children, but since the late 20th century, the role of the father in child care has been given greater prominence and social acceptance in some Western countries.<ref>[http://pascal.iseg.utl.pt/~cisep/conferencias/conferencia_20021016/Papers/kjeldstad55.PDF] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130815170110/http://pascal.iseg.utl.pt/~cisep/conferencias/conferencia_20021016/Papers/kjeldstad55.PDF|date=August 15, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucgstp.org/lit/gn/gn064/fathersimportant.htm |title=ucgstp.org |publisher=Ucgstp.org |access-date=2015-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225030354/http://www.ucgstp.org/lit/gn/gn064/fathersimportant.htm |archive-date=2008-02-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The 20th century also saw more and more women entering paid work. [[Mothers' rights]] within the workforce include [[maternity leave]] and [[parental leave]].

The social role and experience of motherhood varies greatly depending upon location. Mothers are more likely than fathers to encourage assimilative and communion-enhancing patterns in their children.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ann M. Berghout Austin1 and T.J. Braeger2 |url=http://fla.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/30/181 |title=Gendered differences in parents' encouragement of sibling interaction: implications for the construction of a personal premise system |journal=First Language |publisher=Fla.sagepub.com |date=1990-10-01 |volume=10 |issue=30 |pages=181–197 |doi=10.1177/014272379001003001 |access-date=2011-10-27 |archive-date=2008-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080904200612/http://fla.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/30/181 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mothers are more likely than fathers to acknowledge their children's contributions in conversation.<ref name=speech/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hladik |first1=E. |last2=Edwards |first2=H. |year=1984 |title=A comparison of mother-father speech in the naturalistic home environment |journal=Journal of Psycholinguistic Research |volume=13 |pages=321–332 |doi= 10.1007/bf01068149|s2cid=144226238 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leaper |first1=C. |last2=Anderson |first2=K. |last3=Sanders |first3=P. |year=1998 |title=Moderators of gender effects on parents' talk to their children: A meta-analysis |journal=Developmental Psychology |volume=34 |issue= 1|pages=3–27 |doi= 10.1037/0012-1649.34.1.3|pmid=9471001 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/07x9h9vv }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mannle |first1=S. |last2=Tomasello |first2=M. |year=1987 |chapter=Fathers, siblings, and the bridge hypothesis |editor-first=K. E. |editor-last=Nelson |editor2-first=A. |editor2-last=vanKleeck |title=Children's language |volume=6 |pages=23–42 |location=Hillsdale, NJ |publisher=Erlbaum }}</ref> The way mothers speak to their children ([[Baby talk|"motherese"]]) is better suited to support very young children in their efforts to understand speech (in context of the reference English) than fathers.<ref name=speech>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Fathers%27+speech+to+their+children:+perfect+pitch+or+tin+ear%3F-a0107202406 |title=Fathers' speech to their c

Father

2025-11-08T09:58:06Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{short description|Male parent}} {{pp-semi|small=yes}} {{redirect-several|Father|Dad|Daddy|Fatherhood}} Father and child A '''father''', '''dad''', or '''daddy''' is the male parent of a child. Besides the paternal bonds of a father to his child or children, fathers may have a parental, legal, and social relationship with their child or children that carries with it certain rights and obligations. A '''biological..."

{{short description|Male parent}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{redirect-several|Father|Dad|Daddy|Fatherhood}}
[[File:Father's love (cropped).jpg|thumb|Father and child]]
A '''father''', '''dad''', or '''daddy''' is the [[male]] [[parent]] of a [[child]]. Besides the paternal bonds of a father to his child or children, fathers may have a parental, legal, and social relationship with their child or children that carries with it certain rights and obligations.

A '''biological father''' is the male genetic contributor to the creation of the child, through [[sexual intercourse]] or [[sperm donation]]. A biological father may have legal obligations to a child not raised by him, such as an obligation of monetary support. An '''adoptive father''' is a man who has become the child's parent through the legal process of [[adoption]]. A '''putative father''' is a man whose biological relationship to a child is alleged but has not been established. A '''[[stepfather]]''' is a non-biological male parent married to a child's preexisting parent and may form a family unit but generally does not have the legal rights and responsibilities of a parent in relation to the child.

The [[adjective]] "paternal" refers to a father and comparatively to "maternal" for a [[mother]]. The [[verb]] "to father" means to procreate or to sire a child from which also derives the noun "fathering". Biological fathers determine the sex of their child through a [[sperm]] cell which either contains an [[X chromosome]] (female), or [[Y chromosome]] (male).<ref>[http://www.uic.edu/classes/bms/bms655/lesson6.html HUMAN GENETICS, MENDELIAN INHERITANCE] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001027202429/http://www.uic.edu/classes/bms/bms655/lesson6.html |date=2000-10-27 }} retrieved 25 February 2012</ref> Related [[term of endearment|terms of endearment]] are ''dad'' (''dada'', ''daddy''), ''baba, papa'', ''pappa'', ''papasita'', (''pa'', ''pap'') and ''pop''. A male role model that children can look up to is sometimes referred to as a ''father-figure''.

== Responsible and positive parenting ==
In today's world, the terms '''''responsible parenting''''' and '''''positive parenting''''' are often used.

[[UNICEF]] distinguishes the term ''positive parenting''.

'''''Positive parenting''''' is parenting that creates an environment conducive to child development that prioritizes healthy parent-child relationships.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Позитивне батьківство: про підхід у вихованні та як він впливає на розвиток дитини |url=https://www.unicef.org/ukraine/documents/positive-parenting-impact}}</ref>

'''''Responsible parenting''''' is parenting that implies the fulfillment of the functions assigned to them by parents and is manifested in individual and social aspects, includes raising children, as well as taking into account the stage before the birth of a child, maintaining family relations with already adult children.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ushenko |first1=Natalya |last2=Kozhemiakina |first2=Svitlana |last3=Tupika |first3=Alina |date=2024-12-31 |title=СОЦІАЛЬНІ ІННОВАЦІЇ ТА СОЦІАЛЬНА ВІДПОВІДАЛЬНІСТЬ: ЯК ЛЮДСЬКИЙ ЧИННИК ВПЛИВАЄ НА СТАЛИЙ РОЗВИТОК МІСТА |journal=Європейський науковий журнал Економічних та Фінансових інновацій |volume=2 |issue=14 |pages=439–447 |doi=10.32750/2024-0239 |issn=2617-8648|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Paternal rights==
[[File:Stockholm pedestrian sign father and daughter.jpg|thumb|Stockholm pedestrian sign father and daughter]]
The [[paternity (law)|paternity]] rights of a father with regard to his children differ widely from country to country, often reflecting the level of involvement and roles expected by that society.

Unlike [[motherhood]], fatherhood is not mentioned in [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]].<ref>Berween M. International bills of human rights: an Islamic critique // The International Journal of Human Rights. – 2003. – V. 7. – №. 4. – p. 129-142.</ref>

;Paternity leave
[[Parental leave]] is when a father takes time off to support his newly born or adopted baby.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.babycenter.com/0_paternity-leave-what-are-the-options-for-dads_8258.bc |title=What is paternity leave? |access-date=2016-05-06 |archive-date=2020-06-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614025903/https://www.babycenter.com/0_paternity-leave-what-are-the-options-for-dads_8258.bc |url-status=usurped }}</ref> Paid paternity leave first began in [[Sweden]] in 1976, and is paid in more than half of [[European Union]] countries.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/04/18/mapped-paid-paternity-leave-across-the-euwhich-countries-are-the/ Mapped: Paid paternity leave across the EU...which countries are the most generous?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124023905/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/04/18/mapped-paid-paternity-leave-across-the-euwhich-countries-are-the/ |date=2017-11-24 }} Published by The Telegraph, 18 April 2016</ref> In the case of male same-sex couples the law often makes no provision for either one or both fathers to take paternity leave.

;Child custody
[[Fathers' rights movement]]s, such as [[Fathers 4 Justice]], argue that family courts are biased against fathers.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1489547/Fathers-4-Justice-take-their-fight-for-rights-across-the-Atlantic.html Fathers 4 Justice take their fight for rights across the Atlantic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210125319/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1489547/Fathers-4-Justice-take-their-fight-for-rights-across-the-Atlantic.html |date=2018-12-10 }} Published by The Telegraph, 8 May 2005</ref>

;Child support
[[Child support]] is an ongoing periodic payment made by one parent to the other; it is normally paid by the parent who does not have custody.

;Paternity fraud
An estimated 2% of British fathers experiences [[paternity fraud]] during a [[non-paternity event]], bringing up a child they wrongly believe to be their biological [[offspring]].<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/fatherhood/one-in-50-british-fathers-unknowingly-raise-another-mans-child/ One in 50 British fathers unknowingly raises another man's child] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321000810/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/family/parenting/one-in-50-british-fathers-unknowingly-raise-another-mans-child/ |date=2019-03-21 }} Published by The Telegraph, April 6, 2016</ref>

==Role of the father==
[[File:Father and child, Dhaka.jpg|thumb|Father and child, Dhaka, Bangladesh]]
In almost all cultures, fathers are regarded as secondary caregivers.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}} This perception is slowly changing with more and more fathers becoming primary caregivers while mothers go to work, or in single parenting situations and male same-sex parenting couples.

=== Fatherhood in the Western World ===
[[File:Aiden-Seth-Haley-Singleton.jpg|left|thumb|A father and his children in Florida]]
In the West, the image of the married father as the primary wage-earner is changing. The social context of fatherhood plays an important part in the well-being of men and their children.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Garfield, CF, Clark-Kauffman, K, David, MM |title=Fatherhood as a Component of Men's Health |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |date=Nov 15, 2006 |volume=296 |doi=10.1001/jama.296.19.2365 |pmid=17105800 |issue=19 |pages=2365–8|last2=Clark-Kauffman |last3=Davis }}</ref> In the [[United States]] 16% of single parents were men as of 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/cb13-ff13.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424015256/http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/cb13-ff13.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 24, 2013 |title=Facts for Features |access-date=October 25, 2013 }}</ref>

=== Importance of father or father-figure ===
Involved fathers offer developmentally specific provisions to their children and are impacted themselves by doing so. Active father figures may play a role in reducing behavior and psychological problems in young adults.<ref>{{Citation
| last1 =McLanahan
| first1 =Sara
| last2 =Tach
| first2 =Laura
| last3 =Schneider
| first3 =Daniel
| title =The Causal Effects of Father Absence
| journal =Annual Review of Sociology
| volume =39
| pages =399–427
| year =2013
| doi =10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145704| pmid =24489431
| pmc =3904543
}}</ref> An increased amount of father–child involvement may help increase a child's social stability, educational achievement,<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Karberg|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Finocharo|first2=Jane|last3=Vann|first3=Nigel|date=2019|title=Father and Child Well-Being: A Scan of Current Research|url=https://www.fatherhood.gov/sites/default/files/resource_files/nrfc_brief_for_web_508.pdf|access-date=October 17, 2019|website=fatherhood.gov|publisher=National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse}}</ref>{{Rp|5}} and their potential to have a solid marriage as an adult. Their children may also be more curious about the world around them and develop greater problem-solving skills.<ref>United States. National Center for Fathering, Kansas City, MO. Partnership for Family Involvement in Education. [http://www.ed.gov/pubs/parents/calltocommit/fathers.pdf A Call to Commitment: Fathers' Involvement in Children's Learning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217184152/https://www2.ed.gov/pubs/parents/calltocommit/fathers.pdf |date=2020-02-17 }}. June 2000</ref> Children who were raised with fathers perceive themselves to be more cognitively and physically competent than their peers without a father.<ref name="Fatherless">{{cite journal | pmid = 9363577 | volume=38 | issue=7 | title=Children raised in fatherless families from infancy: family relationships and the socioemotional development of children of lesbian and single heterosexual mothers | journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry | pages=783–91 | last1 = Golombok | first1 = S | last2 = Tasker | first2 = F | last3 = Murray | first3 = C | doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01596.x| year=1997 }}</ref> Mothers raising children together with a father reported less severe disputes with their child.<ref name="Fatherless Followup">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00324.x|pmid = 15482501|title = Children raised in fatherless families from infancy: A follow-up of children of lesbian and single heterosexual mothers at early adolescence|journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry|volume = 45|issue = 8|pages = 1407–1419|year = 2004|last1 = MacCallum|first1 = Fiona|last2 = Golombok|first2 = Susan}}</ref>

The father-figure is not always a child's biological father, and some children will have a biological father as well as a step- or nurturing father. When a child is conceived through sperm donation, the donor will be the "biological father" of the child.

[[Fatherhood]] as legitimate identity can be dependent on domestic factors and behaviors. For example, a study of the [[Interpersonal relationship|relationship]] between fathers, their sons, and home computers found that the construction of fatherhood and [[masculinity]] required that fathers display computer expertise.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ribak|first=Rivka|title="Like immigrants": negotiating power in the face of the home computer|journal=New Media & Society|year=2001|volume=3|issue=2|pages=220–238|doi=10.1177/1461444801003002005|s2cid=8179638}}</ref>

==Determination of parenthood==
[[File:Rosenzweig Paternal love.jpg|thumb|200px|left|''Paternal love'' (1803) by [[Nanette Rosenzweig]], [[National Museum, Warsaw|National Museum]] in [[Warsaw]]]]

[[Roman law]] defined fatherhood as "Mater semper certa; pater est quem nuptiae demonstrant" ("The [identity of the] mother is always certain; the father is whom the marriage vows indicate"). The recent emergence of accurate scientific testing, particularly [[DNA testing]], has resulted in the [[family law]] relating to fatherhood experiencing rapid changes.

== History of fatherhood ==
[[File:BritaAndI Selfportrait.jpg|thumb|Painter [[Carl Larsson]] playing with his laughing [[daughter]] Brita]]

Many male animals do not participate in the rearing of their young. The development of human men as creatures which are involved in their offspring's upbringing took place during the stone age.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inverse.com/mind-body/the-first-stay-at-home-dad|title=Why ancient men had to evolve from carousers to doting dads — or die|first=Emma|last=Betuel|website=Inverse|date=21 June 2020 }}</ref>

In medieval and most of modern European history, caring for children was predominantly the domain of mothers, whereas fathers in many societies provide for the family as a whole. Since the 1950s, social scientists and feminists have increasingly challenged gender roles in Western countries, including that of the male breadwinner. Policies are increasingly targeting fatherhood as a tool of changing gender relations.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bjørnholt | first1 = M. | author-link1 = Margunn Bjørnholt | year = 2014 | title = Changing men, changing times; fathers and sons from an experimental gender equality study | url = http://www.margunnbjornholt.no/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Changing-men-changing-times-fathers-and-sons-from-an-experimental-gender-equality-study.pdf | journal = [[The Sociological Review]] | volume = 62 | issue = 2 | pages = 295–315 | doi = 10.1111/1467-954X.12156 | s2cid = 143048732 | access-date = 2016-05-21 | archive-date = 2018-10-21 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181021020857/http://www.margunnbjornholt.no/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Changing-men-changing-times-fathers-and-sons-from-an-experimental-gender-equality-study.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref> Research from various societies suggest that since the middle of the 20th century fathers have become increasingly involved in the care of their children.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|last=University of California, Irvine|date=September 28, 2016|title=Today's parents spend more time with their kids than moms and dads did 50 years ago|work=Science Daily|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/09/160928160716.htm|access-date=November 3, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Livingston|first1=Gretchen|last2=Parker|first2=Kim|date=19 June 2019|title=8 facts about American dads|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/12/fathers-day-facts/|access-date=2022-02-02|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Blamires|first1=Diana|last2=Kirkham|first2=Sophie|date=17 August 2005|title=Fathers play greater role in childcare|url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/aug/17/gender.children|access-date=2022-02-02|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huerta|first1=Maria C.|last2=Adema|first2=Willem|last3=Baxter|first3=Jennifer|last4=Han|first4=Wen-Jui|last5=Lausten|first5=Mette|last6=Lee|first6=RaeHyuck|last7=Waldfogel|first7=Jane|date=16 December 2014|title=Fathers' Leave and Fathers' Involvement: Evidence from Four OECD Countries|journal=European Journal of Social Security|volume=16|issue=4|pages=308–346|doi=10.1177/138826271401600403|issn=1388-2627|pmc=5415087|pmid=28479865}}</ref>

==Patricide==
In early human history there have been notable instances of [[patricide]]. For example:
* [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]] (r. 1243–1207 B.C.E.), [[Assyria]]n king, was killed by his own son after sacking [[Babylon]].
* [[Sennacherib]] (r. 704–681 B.C.E.), [[Assyria]]n king, was killed by two of his sons for his desecration of [[Babylon]].
* King [[Kassapa I]] (473 to 495 CE) creator of the Sigiriya citadel of ancient Sri Lanka killed his father king Dhatusena for the throne.
* [[Emperor Yang of Sui#Did Emperor Yang kill Emperor Wen.3F|Emperor Yang of Sui]] in Chinese history allegedly killed his father, [[Emperor Wen of Sui]].
* [[Beatrice Cenci]], Italian noblewoman who, according to legend, killed her father after he imprisoned and raped her. She was condemned and beheaded for the crime along with her brother and her stepmother in 1599.
* [[Lizzie Borden]] (1860–1927) allegedly killed her father and her stepmother with an axe in Fall River, Massachusetts, in 1892. She was acquitted, but her innocence is still disputed.
* [[Iyasus I of Ethiopia]] (1654–1706), one of the great warrior emperors of Ethiopia, was deposed by his son [[w:Tekle Haymanot I of Ethiopia|Tekle Haymanot]] in 1706 and subsequently assassinated.

In more contemporary history there have also been instances of father–offspring conflicts, such as:

* [[Chiyo Aizawa]] (born 1939) murdered her own father who had been [[rape|raping]] her for fifteen years, on October 5, 1968, in Japan. The incident changed the [[Criminal Code of Japan]] regarding patricide.
* [[Kip Kinkel]] (born 1982), an [[Oregon]] boy who was convicted of killing his parents at home and two fellow students at school on May 20, 1998.
* [[Sarah Marie Johnson]] (born 1987), an [[Idaho]] girl who was convicted of killing both parents on the morning of September 2, 2003.
* [[Dipendra of Nepal]] (1971–2001) reportedly massacred much of his family at a royal dinner on June 1, 2001, including his father [[King Birendra]], mother, brother, and sister.
* [[Christopher Porco]] (born 1983), was convicted on August 10, 2006, of the murder of his father and attempted murder of his mother with an axe.

==Terminology==

===Biological fathers===
[[File:Paternal bonding between father and newborn daughter.jpg|thumb|280px|alt=Father holding daughter in swaddling clothes|[[Paternal bond]]ing between a father and his newborn daughter]]
[[File:Father and son 27.jpg|thumb|280px|upright|Father and son]]
[[File:Isabel e Pedro II 1870.jpg|thumb|Emperor [[Pedro II of Brazil]] with his daughter [[Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil|Isabel, Princess Imperial]], {{Circa|1870}}. She acted as regent of the [[Empire of Brazil]] for three times during her father's absences abroad.<ref>{{cite web|author=Sciulo, Marília Mara|title=Princesa Isabel: 6 fatos para entender o papel da regente na história|url=https://revistagalileu.globo.com/Sociedade/Historia/noticia/2021/11/princesa-isabel-6-fatos-para-entender-o-papel-da-regente-na-historia.html|date=14 November 2021|language=pt|access-date=13 November 2022}}</ref>]]
* '''Baby Daddy'''{{spaced ndash}}a biological father who bears financial responsibility for a child, but with whom the mother has little or no contact.
* '''Birth father'''{{spaced ndash}}the biological father of a child who, due to adoption or parental separation, does not raise the child or cannot take care of one.
* '''Biological father'''{{spaced ndash}} or sometimes simply referred to as "Father" is the genetic father of a child.
* '''Posthumous father'''{{spaced ndash}}father died before children were born (or even conceived in the case of [[artificial insemination]]).
* '''Putative father'''{{spaced ndash}}unwed man whose legal relationship to a child has not been established but who is alleged to be or claims that he may be the biological father of a child.<ref name="CWIG2">{{cite news |author=Child Welfare Information Gateway |date=30 June 2010 |title=The Rights of Unmarried Fathers |work=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |url=http://www.childwelfare.gov/systemwide/laws_policies/statutes/putative.cfm |access-date=10 March 2023 |archive-date=5 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105215316/https://www.childwelfare.gov/topics/systemwide/laws-policies/statutes/putative/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bouvier |first1=John |title=Bouvier's Law Dictionary |date=1987 |publisher=The Boston Book Company |location=Boston}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehman |first1=Jeffrey |title=West's Encyclopedia of American Law, Vol. 8 |last2=Phelps |first2=Shirelle |date=2005 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |isbn=9780787663742 |edition=2 |location=Detroit |

Progenitor

2025-11-08T09:54:23Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Founder of a family lineage; often legendary}} {{Distinguish|Progenitor cell}} {{Use American English|date = January 2019}} {{Use mdy dates|date = January 2019}} {{wiktionary|progenitor|primogenitor}} In genealogy, a '''progenitor''' (rarer: '''primogenitor'''; is the founder (sometimes one that is legendary) of a family, line of descent, gens, clan, tribe, noble house, or ethnic..."

{{Short description|Founder of a family lineage; often legendary}}
{{Distinguish|Progenitor cell}}
{{Use American English|date = January 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = January 2019}}
{{wiktionary|progenitor|primogenitor}}
In [[genealogy]], a '''progenitor''' (rarer: '''primogenitor'''; is the founder (sometimes one that is [[legendary progenitor|legendary]]) of a [[family]], [[Kinship|line of descent]], [[gens]], [[clan]], [[tribe]], [[Nobility|noble house]], or [[ethnic group]].<ref name="Duden-Stammvater">{{cite web |access-date=2013-10-12 |author=Duden-Redaktion |title=Stammmutter |url=http://www.duden.de/node/792509/revisions/1250668/view |publisher=Bibliographisches Institut, Berlin |date=2013-01-19 |quote=Stammvater, der: Mann als Begründer eines Stammes, einer Sippe }}. Ebenda: [http://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Ahnherr ''Ahnherr:''] "Stammvater eines Geschlechts".</ref> Genealogy (commonly known as family history) understands a progenitor to be the earliest recorded [[ancestor]] of a [[consanguineous]] family group of [[Lineal descendant|descendant]]s.

Progenitors are sometimes used to describe the status of a genealogical research project, or in order to compare the availability of genealogical data in different times and places. Often, progenitors are implied to be [[patrilineality|patrilineal]]. If a patrilineal [[dynasty]] is considered, each such dynasty has exactly one progenitor.

[[Nobility|Aristocratic]] and [[Dynasty|dynastic families]] often look back to an ancestor who is seen as the founder and progenitor of their house (i.e. family line). Even the old [[Roman law|Roman legal concept]] of [[agnate]]s ([[Latin]] for "descendants") was based on the idea of the unbroken family line of a progenitor, but only includes male members of the family, whilst the women were referred to as "[[cognatic]]".

It is rarely possible to confirm [[biological parenthood]] in the case of ancient family lines (see [[bastardy]]). In addition, the progenitor is often a distant ancestor, only known as a result of [[oral tradition]]. Where people groups and communities rely solely on a [[patrilinear]] family line, their common ancestor often became the subject of a legend surrounding the origin of the family. By contrast, families and peoples with a [[matrilinear]] history trace themselves back to an original female '''progenitrix'''. Matrilinear [[rules of descent]] are found in about 200 of the 1300 known [[indigenous people]]s and [[ethnic group]]s worldwide, whilst around 600 have patrilineal rules of descent (from father to son).<ref name="Gray 1998">J. Patrick Gray: ''Ethnographic Atlas Codebook.'' In: ''World Cultures.'' Vol. 10, No. 1, 1998, pp. 86-136, here p. 104: Table 43 ''Descent: Major Type'' (one of the few assessments of all 1,267 ethnic groups; [http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/worldcul/Codebook4EthnoAtlas.pdf pdf file; 2.4 MB; without page nos.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121118232413/http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/worldcul/Codebook4EthnoAtlas.pdf |date=November 18, 2012 }}): "584 Patrilineal […] 52 Duolateral […] 160 Matrilineal […] 45 Mixed". The [http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/worldcul/atlas.htm ''Ethnographic Atlas by George P. Murdock''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130802074051/http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/worldcul/atlas.htm |date=August 2, 2013}} contains data sets of 1,300 ethnic groups (as at December 2012 at [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Ethnographic_Atlas ''InterSciWiki''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131114951/http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Ethnographic_Atlas |date=January 31, 2013}}), of which often only samples were assessed.</ref>

In the [[Mythology|mythological beliefs]] of the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] the god of war, [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]], was viewed as the progenitor of the Romans;<ref name="wissen-Mars">{{cite web |access-date=2013-10-12 |author=Lexikoneintrag |title=Mars (Mythologie) |url=http://www.wissen.de/lexikon/mars-mythologie?keyword=Mars |work=[[wissen.de]] |date=2000–2013 |quote=Mars […] as father of ''Romulus'' and ''Remus'', progenitor of the Romans}}.</ref> which is why the [[Mars symbol]] ([[♂]], a shield and spear), is used to refer to the [[masculinity|male sex]]. Besides cities and countries, [[ethnic groups]] may also have a progenitor (often a god) in their mythologies, for example, the [[Hellenistic]] [[Greeks]] look back to [[Hellen]] as their progenitor. In Indian [[Hinduism]] ''Manu'' is the progenitor of all mankind. In the [[Abrahamic religions]], [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]] and others are described as progenitors (see also [[Biblical patriarchy]]).

In [[archaeogenetics]] (archaeological genetics), a human [[Y-chromosomal Adam]] has been named as the [[most recent common ancestor]] from whom all currently living people are descended patrilinearly. This Adam lived in [[Africa]] at a time variously estimated from 60,000 to 338,000 years ago. And [[Mitochondrial Eve]], the most recent common ancestor in the matrilineal line, is estimated to have lived from 100,000 to 230,000 years ago. (There being no suggestion that these, “Eve” and “Adam”, lived at nearby times or places. And there were many other common ancestors in other lines of descent.)

==Examples of patrilineal progenitors==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! subject
! dynasty
! progenitor
! date of progenitor's death
|-
| Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]] || [[House of Wettin|Wettin]] || [[Dietrich I of Wettin]] || ca. 976
|-
| King [[Philippe of Belgium|Philippe of the Belgians]] || [[House of Wettin|Wettin]] || [[Dietrich I of Wettin]] || ca. 976
|-
| King [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Hussein bin Ali]] || [[Hashemite]] || [[Ali]] || 661
|-
| Emperor [[Naruhito of Japan]] || [[Imperial House of Japan]] || [[Emperor Keitai|Keitai]] || 10 March 531
|-
| [[Charlemagne]] || [[Carolingian dynasty|Carolingian]] || Bishop [[Arnulf of Metz]] || 640
|-
| Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom]] || [[House of Este|Este]] || [[Otbert I, Count Palatine of Italy]] || 975
|-
| Queen [[Margrethe II of Denmark]] || [[House of Oldenburg|Oldenburg]] || [[Elimar I, Count of Oldenburg]] ||1112
|-
| King [[Harald V of Norway]] || [[House of Oldenburg|Oldenburg]] || [[Elimar I, Count of Oldenburg]] ||1112
|-
| King [[Charles III of the United Kingdom]] || [[House of Oldenburg|Oldenburg]] || [[Elimar I, Count of Oldenburg]] ||1112
|-
| King [[Felipe VI of Spain]] || [[Robertians]]/[[Capetian dynasty|Capetians]] || [[Robert of Hesbaye]] || ca. 807
|-
| Grand Duke [[Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg|Henri of Luxembourg]] || [[Robertians]]/[[Capetian dynasty|Capetians]] || [[Robert of Hesbaye]] || ca. 807
|-
| [[George William, Duke of Liegnitz|George William, Duke of Liegnitz and Brieg]] || [[Piast dynasty]] || [[Piast the Wheelwright]] || 861
|-
| King [[Gediminas]] of [[Lithuania]]|| [[House of Gediminas|Gediminas]] || [[Polemon II of Pontus]] || 74
|}

== See also ==
*[[Protoplast (religion)|Protoplast]], progenitors of mankind in a creation story
*[[Ancestor]]
*[[Ahnentafel]]
*[[Legendary progenitor]]
*[[Progenitor cell]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Family}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Kinship and descent]]
[[Category:Genealogy]]
[[Category:Ancestors]]

Legal guardian

2025-11-08T09:53:11Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Person with the legal authority to handle the care affairs of another person}} {{For|the British daily newspaper|the Guardian}} {{redirect|Guardianship|the 1935 sculpture by James Earle Fraser|Guardianship (sculpture)}} {{Multiple issues| {{Globalize|date=October 2017|reason=this article seems to be a mixture of US-specific information throughout (not just in the US section) and global information, in addition to country sections. US-specific text sho..."

{{Short description|Person with the legal authority to handle the care affairs of another person}}
{{For|the British daily newspaper|the Guardian}}
{{redirect|Guardianship|the 1935 sculpture by James Earle Fraser|Guardianship (sculpture)}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Globalize|date=October 2017|reason=this article seems to be a mixture of US-specific information throughout (not just in the US section) and global information, in addition to country sections. US-specific text should be in the US section.}}
{{Lead too short|date=March 2020}}
}}
{{Family law}}

A '''legal guardian''' is a person who has been appointed by a court or otherwise has the legal authority (and the corresponding [[duty]]) to make decisions relevant to the personal and [[property]] interests of another person who is deemed [[Competence (law)|incompetent]],<ref name="B.-2017">{{Cite book |last=B. |first=Melton, Gary |title=Psychological evaluations for the courts : a handbook for mental health professionals and lawyers |date=22 December 2017 |publisher=Guilford Publications |isbn=978-1-4625-3266-7 |oclc=1026274671}}</ref> called a [[ward (law)|ward]]. For example, a legal guardian might be granted the authority to make decisions regarding a ward's housing or medical care or manage the ward's finances.<ref name="Millar-2013">{{Cite journal |last=Millar |first=Dorothy Squatrito |date=2013 |title=Guardianship Alternatives: Their Use Affirms Self-Determination of Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23880988 |journal=Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=291–305 |doi=10.1177/215416471304800302 |jstor=23880988 |issn=2154-1647}}</ref> Guardianship is most appropriate when an alleged ward is functionally incapacitated, meaning they have a lagging skill critical to performing certain tasks, such as making important life decisions.<ref name="McSwiggan-2016">{{Cite journal |last1=McSwiggan |first1=Sally |last2=Meares |first2=Susanne |last3=Porter |first3=Melanie |date=March 2016 |title=Decision-making capacity evaluation in adult guardianship: a systematic review |journal=International Psychogeriatrics |language=en |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=373–384 |doi=10.1017/S1041610215001490 |pmid=26412394 |s2cid=33108335 |issn=1041-6102|doi-access=free }}</ref> Guardianship intends to serve as a safeguard to protect the ward.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frolik |first=Lawrence A. |date=2012 |title=Guardianship reform: When the best is the enemy of the good |journal=Stanford Law & Policy Review |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=347–358 |via=Hein Online}}</ref>

Anyone can petition for a guardianship hearing if they believe another individual cannot make rational decisions on their own behalf.<ref name="B.-2017" /> In a guardianship hearing, a judge ultimately decides whether guardianship is appropriate and, if so, will appoint a guardian.<ref name="Millar-2013" /> Guardians are typically used in four situations: guardianship for an incapacitated elderly person (due to old age or infirmity), guardianship for a minor, and guardianship for developmentally disabled adults and for adults found to be incompetent. A family member is most commonly appointed guardian,{{Citation needed|reason=need support for the statistic that family guardians are more common than court-appointed guardians|date=October 2022}} though a professional guardian or [[public trustee]] may be appointed if a suitable family member is not available.

== Guardianship for incapacitated elderly ==
Guardianship for an incapacitated elderly person typically arises when someone determines that an elderly person has become unable to care for their own person and/or property. In fact, most alleged wards are elderly (''M''s = 76–82 years), many of whom resided in a care facility and had been diagnosed with a neurological impairment such as dementia.<ref name="McSwiggan-2016" /> Typically, a precipitating incident prompts a professional, family member, health care worker, or clergyman to initiate guardianship proceedings. While guardianship intends to protect and support incapacitated elderly people unable to care themselves or engage in the activities of daily living without assistance, guardianship sometimes results in financial exploitation of wards.

The process will generally start with a determination whether the alleged incapacitated person is actually incapacitated. There will often be an evidentiary hearing. A systematic review <ref name="McSwiggan-2016" /> of guardianship studies from the United States, Sweden, and Australia found that the most commonly used evidence in guardianship hearings was the alleged ward's medical condition; perhaps surprisingly, descriptions of the alleged ward's cognitive abilities, functional abilities and psychiatric symptoms are much less common.

If the court determines an individual is incapacitated, the court then determines whether a guardian is necessary, the extent of the guardian's legal authority, (e.g. a guardian may be needed for the person's finances but not for the person) and, if so, who the guardian should be.<ref>{{cite web|title=Guardianship—Acting for Adults Who Become Disabled|url=https://www.michbar.org/public_resources/probate_guardianship|website=State Bar of Michigan|access-date=20 December 2017}}</ref> The determination of whether a guardianship is necessary may consider a number of factors, including whether there is a lesser restrictive alternative, such as the use of an already existing [[power of attorney]] and [[health care proxy]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Alternatives to Guardianship and Conservatorship for Adults in Iowa|url=http://supporteddecisionmaking.org/sites/default/files/iowa_alternatives_guardianship_conservatorship_0.pdf|website=National Resource Center for Supported Decision-Making|access-date=20 December 2017|date=2007|archive-date=22 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222053109/http://supporteddecisionmaking.org/sites/default/files/iowa_alternatives_guardianship_conservatorship_0.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In some cases, a guardianship dispute can become quite contentious and can result in litigation between a parent and adult children or between different siblings against each other in what is essentially a pre-probate dispute over a parent's wealth.

=== Abuses ===
A report published in 2010 by the U.S. Government Accountability Office looked at 20 selected closed cases in which guardians stole or otherwise improperly obtained assets from clients. In 6 of these 20 cases, the courts failed to adequately screen guardians ahead of time and appointed individuals with criminal convictions or significant financial problems, and in 12 of 20 cases, the courts failed to oversee guardians once they had been appointed.<ref name="Guardianships: Cases of Financial Exploitation, Neglect, and Abuse of Seniors, Highlights, U.S. GAO, 2010">[https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-10-1046 Guardianships: Cases of Financial Exploitation, Neglect, and Abuse of Seniors], Highlights, U.S. Government Accountability Office, Published: Sep 30, 2010. Publicly Released: Oct 27, 2010.</ref><ref name="Reuters column, October 20, 2017">[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-column-miller-seniors/column-with-u-s-elder-abuse-in-spotlight-a-look-at-guardians-idUSKBN1CP154 Column: With U.S. elder abuse in spotlight, a look at guardians], ''Reuters'', Mark Miller, October 20, 2017.</ref>

In October 2017, ''[[The New Yorker]]'' published an article looking at the situation in [[Nevada]] in which professional guardians sometimes have a number of clients, and argued toward the conclusion that in a number of cases the courts did not properly oversee these arrangements.<ref name="The New Yorker, How the Elderly Lose Their Rights, October 9, 2017">[https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/10/09/how-the-elderly-lose-their-rights HOW THE ELDERLY LOSE THEIR RIGHTS, Guardians can sell the assets and control the lives of senior citizens without their consent—and reap a profit from it], ''The New Yorker'', Rachel Aviv, October 9, 2017.</ref> In 2018, the investigative [[Documentary film|documentary]] "The Guardians" was published, alleging "legal kidnapping of elderly people" in Nevada by private guardianship businesses with no familial or other preexisting relations to their wards, seeking to economically profit from seniors' savings.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.guardiansdocumentary.com/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627132117/http://www.guardiansdocumentary.com/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=June 27, 2018|title=The Guardians|website=guardiansdocumentary.com}}</ref>

== Guardianship for minors ==
{{see also|Child custody|Ward (law)}}

===Natural guardian===
A [[minor (law)|minor]] child's [[parent]]s are the child's natural guardians.<ref>{{cite web|title=Guardianship of children|url=http://communitylaw.org.nz/community-law-manual/chapter-26-parents-guardians-and-caregivers/guardianship-of-children-chapter-26/|website=Community Law|publisher=Community Law Centres o Aotearoa|access-date=20 December 2017|archive-date=30 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130115253/http://communitylaw.org.nz/community-law-manual/chapter-26-parents-guardians-and-caregivers/guardianship-of-children-chapter-26/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Legal guardian===
Most jurisdictions recognise that the parents of a child are the natural guardians of the child, and that the parents may designate who shall become the child's legal guardian in the event of death, typically subject to the approval of the court. The court may appoint a guardian for a minor if their parents are disabled or deceased or if the minor's parents cannot properly manage their child's safety and well-being.<ref name="Wex Definitions Team-2022">{{Cite web |last=Wex Definitions Team |date=January 2022 |title=Guardianship |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/guardianship |access-date=October 14, 2022 |website=Cornell Law School Legal Information Institute}}</ref> If a non-parent is appointed as guardian, the court will determine how the parents' parental rights are impacted by the appointment (e.g., establishing visitation schedules).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Guardianship - Family Court - Delaware Courts - State of Delaware |url=https://courts.delaware.gov/family/guardianship/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=courts.delaware.gov}}</ref>

== Guardianship for disabled adults ==
Legal guardians may be appointed in guardianship cases for [[adult]]s (see also [[conservatorship]]). For example, because parents are not automatically appointed to serve as the guardian of their mentally or physical disabled child who reaches adulthood,<ref name="Millar-2013" /> parents may start a guardianship action to become the legal guardians when the child reaches the [[age of majority]].

A famous example of such an arrangement is the situation involving [[Britney Spears]], who was placed into [[Britney Spears conservatorship dispute|a conservatorship]] under the supervision of her father, [[Jamie Spears]], and attorney Andrew Wallet in 2008, following a series of highly publicized personal struggles and issues with mental health.

== Rules applicable to all guardians ==
[[Court]]s generally have the power to appoint a guardian for an individual in need of special protection. A guardian with responsibility for both the personal well-being and the financial interests of the ward is a ''general guardian''. A person may also be appointed as a ''special guardian'', having limited powers over the interests of the ward. A special guardian may, for example, be given the legal right to determine the disposition of the ward's property without being given any authority over the ward's person.

Depending on the jurisdiction, a legal guardian may be called a "[[conservator (law)|conservator]]", "tutor", "custodian", or curator. Many jurisdictions and the [[Uniform Probate Code]] distinguish between a "guardian" or "guardian of the person" who is an individual with authority over and fiduciary responsibilities for the physical person of the ward, and a "conservator" or "guardian of the property" of a ward who has authority over and fiduciary responsibilities for significant property (often an inheritance or personal injury settlement) belonging to the ward. Some jurisdictions provide for public guardianship programs serving incapacitated adults or children.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.txcourts.gov/gcb/pdf/localguardianshipprograms.pdf |title=Local Guardianship Programs |publisher=txcourts.gov |access-date=2014-01-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102193826/http://www.txcourts.gov/gcb/pdf/localguardianshipprograms.pdf |archive-date=2 January 2014 }}</ref>

A guardian is a [[fiduciary]] and is held to a very high standard of care in exercising their powers. If the ward owns substantial property, then the guardian may be required to give a [[surety bond]] to protect the ward in case dishonesty or incompetence on their part causes financial loss to the ward.

==Guardian ''ad litem''==
The Latin legal term ''ad litem'' means "for the lawsuit" or "for the legal proceeding". A guardian ''ad litem'' is thus someone appointed to represent in court the interests of a person too vulnerable to represent themselves, typically due to youth or mental incapacity.

Guardianship is not federally regulated in the United States; therefore, states vary widely in how they address and manage guardianship cases.<ref name="www.justice.gov-2018">{{Cite web |date=2018-09-12 |title=Guardianship |url=https://www.justice.gov/elderjustice/guardianship |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=www.justice.gov |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Wex Definitions Team-2022" />

===Family law and dependency courts===
Guardians ''[[ad litem]]'' (GsAL) are persons appointed by the court to represent "the best interests of the child" in court proceedings. They are not the same as "legal guardians" and are often appointed in under-age-children cases, many times to represent the interests of the [[Minor (law)|minor children]]. Guardians ''ad litem'' may be called, in some U.S. states, [[Court Appointed Special Advocates]] (CASA). In New York State, they are known as attorneys-for-the-child (AFCs). They are the voice of the child and may represent the child in court, with many judges adhering to any recommendation given by a GAL. GALs may assist where a child is removed from a hostile environment and custody given to the relevant state or county family services agency, and in those cases assists in the protection of the minor child.

Qualifications vary by state, ranging from no experience or qualification, volunteers to [[social worker]]s to attorneys to others. The GAL's only job is to represent the minor children's best interest and advise the court. A guardian ''ad litem'' is an officer of the court, does not represent the parties in the suit, and often enjoys quasi-judicial immunity from any action from the parties involved in a particular case. Qualifications for becoming recognized as a GAL could differ in some states.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Volunteer as a GAL {{!}} North Carolina Judicial Branch |url=https://www.nccourts.gov/programs/guardian-ad-litem/volunteer-as-a-gal |access-date=2024-01-14 |website=www.nccourts.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Group |first=Johnson Law |date=2021-01-30 |title=Best Guardian Ad Litem In Colorado |url=https://johnsonlgroup.com/guardian-litem-in-colorado/ |access-date=2024-01-14 |website=Best Family Law Attorney in Colorado - Johnsonlgroup |language=en-US}}</ref> In, for instance, North Carolina, an applicant (volunteer) must go through a background check and complete 30 hours of training.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Guardian ad Litem Qualifications - What is required for appointment? |url=https://martinfamilylaw.com/guardian-ad-litem-qualifications |access-date=2024-01-14 |language=en-US}}</ref> In Minnesota, the minimum qualifications to become a GAL are Bachelor's degree in psychology, social work, education, nursing, criminal justice, law or child-related discipline and some experience working with families and children '''or''' an equivalent combination of education and relevant experience. In addition, experience as a Guardian ad Litem with completion of the Guardian ad Litem pre-service orientation requirements is requested.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MINNESOTA GUARDIAN AD LITEM-RELATED RULES OF PROCEDURE |url=https://acrobat.adobe.com/id/urn:aaid:sc:US:52e4dcdb-3f94-44fc-8b31-c301dc984973 |access-date=2024-01-14 |website=Minnesota Family Services. Guardian Ad Litem Program}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Guardian ad Litem Homepage / Guardian Ad Litem |url=https://mn.gov/guardian-ad-litem/ |access-date=2024-01-14 |website=Guardian Ad Litem}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Minnesota Guardian ad Litem Program (MN) - Class Specification Bulletin |url=https://agency.governmentjobs.com/guardianadlitem/default.cfm?action=specbulletin&ClassSpecID=1553049&headerfooter=0 |access-date=2024-01-14 |website=agency.governmentjobs.com}}</ref>

Although a guardian ''ad litem'' working through a CASA program volunteers their services, some guardians ''ad litem'' are paid for their services. They must submit detailed time and expense reports to the court for approval. Their fees are taxed as costs in the case. Courts may order all parties to share in the cost, or the court may order a particular party to pay the fees. Volunteer guardians ''ad litem'' and those that volunteer though a CASA program need to make sure that they do not engage in the unauthorized practice of law. Therefore, when they appear in court (even if they are an attorney) as a volunteer GAL, it is best practice to be represented by an attorney and have attorneys file motions on their behalf.

Guardians ''ad litem'' are also appointed in cases where there has been an allegation of [[child abuse]], [[child neglect]], [[Person In Need of Supervision|PINS]], [[juvenile delinquency]], or dependency. In these situations, the guardian ''ad litem'' is charged to represent the best interests of the minor child, which can differ from the position of the state or government agency as well as the interest of the parent or guardian. These guardians ''ad litem'' vary by [[jurisdiction]] and can be volunteer [[advocate]]s or attorneys. For example, in North Carolina, trained GAL volunteers are paired with attorney advocates to advocate for the best interest of abused and neglected children. The program defines a child's best interest as a safe, permanent home.<ref>{{cite web|title=GAL Volunteers|url=http://www.nccourts.org/Citizens/GAL/Volunteers.asp|website=North Carolina Court System|access-date=20 December 2017}}</ref>

===Mental health and probate courts===
Guardians ''ad litem'' can be appointed by the court to represent the interests of mentally ill or disabled persons. For example, the [[Code of Virginia]] requires that the court appoint a "discreet and competent attorney-at-law" or "some other discreet and proper person" to serve as guardian ''ad litem'' to protect the interests of a person under a disability.<ref>{{cite web|title=LEO: Conflict; Appearance of Impropriety, LE Op. 1725 (1999)|url=http://www.vsb.org/profguides/FAQ_leos/LEO1725.html|website=Virginia State Bar|access-date=20 December 2017|date=20 April 1999|archive-date=21 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221184009/http://www.vsb.org/profguides/FAQ_leos/LEO1725.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Estates and financial decision making==
Guardians ''ad litem'' are sometimes appointed in probate matters to represent the interests of unknown or unlocated heirs to an estate.

==Settlement guardians ''ad litem''==
When a settlement is reached in personal injury or medical malpractice cases involving claims brought on behalf of a minor or an incapacitated plaintiff, courts normally appoint a guardian ''ad litem'

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Child

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ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Human between birth and puberty}} {{Redirect2|Children|Childhood||Child (disambiguation)|and|Children (disambiguation)|and|Childhood (disambiguation)}} {{pp-protected|reason=vandalism/disruptive editing|expiry=indefinite|small=yes|vandalism}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}} {{Human growth and development}} File:International children dressed in their native costumes participate in the 100th anniversary of the Statue of Liberty - DPLA - 4461efafd5c4..."

{{Short description|Human between birth and puberty}}
{{Redirect2|Children|Childhood||Child (disambiguation)|and|Children (disambiguation)|and|Childhood (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-protected|reason=vandalism/disruptive editing|expiry=indefinite|small=yes|vandalism}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Human growth and development}}

[[File:International children dressed in their native costumes participate in the 100th anniversary of the Statue of Liberty - DPLA - 4461efafd5c4ba7fde8eedb1f13f439e.jpeg|thumb|250px|International children in traditional clothing at [[Liberty Weekend]]]]
A '''child''' ({{plural form|'''children'''}}) is a [[human]] being between the stages of [[childbirth|birth]] and [[puberty]],<ref name="Child">{{cite web|title=Child |publisher=[[TheFreeDictionary.com]]|access-date=5 January 2013|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Child}}</ref><ref name="Mosby">{{cite Q|Q19573070| book| last= O'Toole | first= MT |title=Mosby's Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing & Health Professions |location = St. Louis MO | oclc = 800721165|isbn = 978-0-323-07403-2 | url = https://archive.org/details/mosbysdictionary09edunse/page/344/mode/2up?q=345 |publisher=[[Elsevier Health Sciences]]|year=2013|page=345}}</ref> or between the [[Development of the human body|developmental period]] of [[infancy]] and puberty.<ref name="Rathus">{{cite book|vauthors = Rathus SA|title =Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development|isbn =978-1-285-67759-0|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|year=2013|page=48|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OfIWAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT48}}</ref> The term may also refer to an unborn human being.<ref>{{cite web|title=Child |publisher=[[OED.com]]|access-date=11 April 2023|url=https://www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/31619}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Child |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster.com]]|access-date=11 April 2023|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/child}}</ref> In English-speaking countries, the legal definition of ''child'' generally refers to a [[minor (law)|minor]], in this case as a person younger than the local [[age of majority]] (there are exceptions such as, for example, the consume and purchase of [[alcoholic beverage]] even after said age of majority<ref>{{Cite web |title=When Is It Legal For Minors To Drink? |url=https://alcohol.org/laws/underage-drinking/ |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=Alcohol.org |language=en}}</ref>), regardless of their physical, mental and sexual development as biological [[adult]]s.<ref name=Child /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Children and the law |url=https://learning.nspcc.org.uk/child-protection-system/children-the-law/child-protection-system/children-the-law |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=NSPCC Learning}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=23.8: Adulthood |url=https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Human_Biology_(Wakim_and_Grewal)/23%3A_Human_Growth_and_Development/23.8%3A_Adulthood#:~:text=Defining%20Adulthood,-Adulthood%20is%20the&text=A%20person%20may%20be%20physically,by%20law%20until%20older%20ages. |website=LibreTexts - Biology |date= 31 December 2018|quote=A person may be physically mature and a biological adult by age 16 or so, but not defined as an adult by law until older ages. For example, in the U.S., you cannot join the armed forces or vote until age 18, and you cannot take on many legal and financial responsibilities until age 21.}}</ref> Children generally have fewer [[Children's rights|rights]] and responsibilities than adults. They are generally classed as unable to make serious decisions. 

''Child'' may also describe a relationship with a [[parent]] (such as [[son]]s and [[daughter]]s of any age)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ssa.gov/dibplan/dacpage.shtml|title=For example, the US Social Security department specifically defines an adult child as being over 18|publisher=Ssa.gov|access-date=9 October 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001072300/http://www.ssa.gov/dibplan/dacpage.shtml|archive-date=1 October 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> or, [[Metaphor|metaphorically]], an [[authority figure]], or signify group membership in a clan, tribe, or religion; it can also signify being strongly affected by a specific time, place, or circumstance, as in "a child of nature" or "a child of the Sixties."<ref>{{cite web|title=American Heritage Dictionary |url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/13/C0291300.html |date=7 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229155809/http://www.bartleby.com/61/13/C0291300.html |archive-date=29 December 2007 }}</ref>

== Biological, legal and social definitions ==
[[File:Children games Louvre Ma99 n2.jpg|thumb|Children playing ball games, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD]]
In the biological sciences, a child is usually defined as a person between birth and puberty,<ref name="Child"/><ref name="Mosby"/> or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty.<ref name="Rathus"/> Legally, the term ''child'' may refer to anyone below the age of majority or some other age limit.

The [[United Nations]] [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]] defines ''child'' as, "A human being below the age of 18 years unless under the [[law]] applicable to the child, [[Age of majority|majority]] is attained earlier."<ref name="un">{{cite web|url=http://www.hakani.org/en/convention/Convention_Rights_Child.pdf |title=Convention on the Rights of the Child|department = General Assembly Resolution 44/25 of 20 November 1989 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101031104336/http://www.hakani.org/en/convention/Convention_Rights_Child.pdf |archive-date=31 October 2010 |publisher=The Policy Press, Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights}}</ref> This is ratified by 192 of 194 member countries. The term ''child'' may also refer to someone below another legally defined age limit unconnected to the age of majority. In [[Singapore]], for example, a ''child'' is legally defined as someone under the age of 14 under the "Children and Young Persons Act" whereas the age of majority is 21.<ref>{{cite web|title=Children and Young Persons Act|url=http://statutes.agc.gov.sg/aol/search/display/view.w3p;page=0;query=DocId%3A911aba78-1d05-4341-96b7-ee334d4a06f0%20%20Status%3Ainforce%20Depth%3A0;rec=0|website=Singapore Statutes Online|access-date=20 October 2017|archive-date=3 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203075312/http://statutes.agc.gov.sg/aol/search/display/view.w3p;page=0;query=DocId:911aba78-1d05-4341-96b7-ee334d4a06f0%20%20Status:inforce%20Depth:0;rec=0|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Proposal to lower the Age of Contractual Capacity from 21 years to 18 years, and the Civil Law (Amendment) Bill |publisher=[[Ministry of Law (Singapore)|Ministry of Law]] |location=Singapore |url=http://www.mlaw.gov.sg/content/minlaw/en/news/public-consultations/proposal-to-lower-the-age-of-contractual-capacity-from-21-years-to-18-years-and-the-civil-law.html |access-date=21 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626054418/https://www.mlaw.gov.sg/content/minlaw/en/news/public-consultations/proposal-to-lower-the-age-of-contractual-capacity-from-21-years-to-18-years-and-the-civil-law.html |archive-date=26 June 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In U.S. Immigration Law, a child refers to anyone who is under the age of 21.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1101|title=8 U.S. Code § 1101 - Definitions|website=LII / Legal Information Institute}}</ref>

Some English definitions of the word ''child'' include the [[fetus]] (sometimes termed ''the unborn'').<ref name="SeeShorter">See Shorter ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' 397 (6th ed. 2007), which's first definition is "A fetus; an infant;...". See also ‘The Compact Edition of the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'': Complete Text Reproduced Micrographically’, Vol. I (''Oxford University Press'', Oxford 1971): 396, which defines it as: ‘The unborn or newly born human being; foetus, infant’.</ref> In many cultures, a child is considered an adult after undergoing a [[rite of passage]], which may or may not correspond to the time of puberty.

Children generally have fewer rights than adults and are classed as unable to make serious decisions, and legally must always be under the care of a responsible adult or [[child custody]], whether their parents divorce or not. 

== Developmental stages of childhood ==
{{Further|Child development stages|Child development}}

=== Early childhood ===
[[File:Children Playing Violin Suzuki Institute 2011.JPG|thumb|Children playing the [[violin]] in a group recital, Ithaca, New York, 2011]]
[[File:Malagasy girls Madagascar Merina.jpg|thumb|Children in [[Madagascar]], 2011]]
[[File:Child playing piano - 1984-11-01.jpg|thumb|Child playing piano, 1984]]

[[Early childhood]] follows the [[infant|infancy]] stage and begins with [[toddler]]hood when the child begins speaking or taking steps independently.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alam |first1=Gajanafar |title=Population and Society |date=2014 |publisher=K.K. Publications |isbn=978-8178441986}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Purdy ER | date = 18 January 2019 |title=Infant and toddler development|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/infant-and-toddler-development|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-05-27}}</ref> While toddlerhood ends around age 3 when the child becomes less dependent on parental assistance for basic needs, early childhood continues approximately until the age of 5 or 6. However, according to the [[National Association for the Education of Young Children]], early childhood also includes infancy. At this stage children are learning through observing, experimenting and communicating with others. Adults supervise and support the development process of the child, which then will lead to the child's autonomy. Also during this stage, a strong emotional bond is created between the child and the care providers. The children also start preschool and kindergarten at this age: and hence their social lives.

=== Middle childhood ===
Middle childhood begins at around age 7, and ends at around age 9 or 10.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Development In Middle Childhood |date=26 May 2020 |url=https://uark.pressbooks.pub/hbse1/chapter/cognitive-development-in-middle-childhood_ch_17/ |language=en |last1=Tyler |first1=Susan }}</ref> Together, early and middle childhood are called formative years. In this middle period, children develop socially and mentally. They are at a stage where they make new friends and gain new skills, which will enable them to become more independent and enhance their individuality.
During middle childhood, children enter the school years, where they are presented with a different setting than they are used to. This new setting creates new challenges and faces for children.<ref name="Collins_1984">{{cite book | vauthors = Collins WA | collaboration = National Research Council (US) Panel to Review the Status of Basic Research on School-Age Children | title = Development during Middle Childhood | year = 1984 | location = Washington D.C. | publisher = National Academies Press (US) | pmid = 25032422 | doi = 10.17226/56 | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK216778/ | isbn = 978-0-309-03478-4 }}</ref> Upon the entrance of school, mental disorders that would normally not be noticed come to light. Many of these disorders include: [[autism]], [[dyslexia]], [[dyscalculia]], and [[ADHD]].<ref name = "Berger_2017">{{cite book | vauthors = Berger K |title=The Developing Person through the Lifespan |date=2017 |publisher=Worth Publishers |isbn=978-1-319-01587-9 }}</ref>{{rp|303–309}} [[Special education]], [[least restrictive environment]], [[response to intervention]] and [[individualized education plan]]s are all specialized plans to help children with disabilities.<ref name = "Berger_2017" />{{rp|310–311}}

Middle childhood is the time when children begin to understand responsibility and are beginning to be shaped by their peers and parents. Chores and more responsible decisions come at this time, as do social comparison and social play.<ref name = "Berger_2017" />{{rp|338}} During social play, children learn from and teach each other, often through observation.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Konner M |title=The Evolution of Childhood |date=2010 |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-674-04566-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674045668/page/512 512–513] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674045668/page/512 }}</ref>

=== Late childhood ===
{{Main|Preadolescence}}
Preadolescence is a stage of human development following early childhood and preceding [[adolescence]]. Preadolescence is commonly defined as ages 9–12, ending with the major onset of puberty, with markers such as [[menarche]], [[spermarche]], and the peak of height velocity occurring. These changes usually occur between ages 11 and 14. It may also be defined as the 2-year period before the major onset of puberty.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://dictionary.apa.org/childhood | title=APA Dictionary of Psychology }}</ref> Preadolescence can bring its own challenges and anxieties. Preadolescent children have a different view of the world from younger children in many significant ways. Typically, theirs is a more realistic view of life than the intense, fantasy-oriented world of earliest childhood. Preadolescents have more mature, sensible, realistic thoughts and actions: 'the most "sensible" stage of development...the child is a much ''less emotional being'' now.'<ref>Mavis Klein, ''Okay Parenting'' (1991) p. 13 and p. 78</ref> Preadolescents may well view human [[Interpersonal relationship|relationship]]s differently (e.g. they may notice the flawed, human side of [[authority]] figures). Alongside that, they may begin to develop a sense of [[self (psychology)|self]]-[[Identity (social science)|identity]], and to have increased feelings of [[independence]]: 'may feel an individual, no longer "just one of the family."'<ref>E. Fenwick/T. Smith, ''Adolescence'' (London 1993) p. 29</ref>

== Developmental stages post-childhood ==
=== Adolescence ===
[[File:Paolo Monti - Serie fotografica - BEIC 6341393.jpg|thumb|An adolescent girl, photographed by [[Paolo Monti]]]]

[[Adolescence]] is usually determined to be between the onset of puberty and legal adulthood: mostly corresponding to the teenage years (13–19). However, [[puberty]] usually begins before the teenage years (10—11 for girls and 11—12 for boys). Although biologically a child is a human being between the stages of [[childbirth|birth]] and [[puberty]],<ref name="Child"/><ref name="Mosby"/> adolescents are legally considered children, as they tend to lack adult rights and are still required to attend compulsory schooling in many cultures, though this varies. The onset of adolescence brings about various physical, [[psychological]] and behavioral changes. The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country and by function, and even within a single nation-state or culture there may be different ages at which an individual is considered to be mature enough to be entrusted by society with certain tasks.

== History ==
{{main|History of childhood}}
[[File:Su Han Ch'en 001.jpg|upright|thumb|''Playing Children'', by [[Song dynasty]] [[Chinese art]]ist Su Hanchen, c. 1150 AD.]]
During the European [[Renaissance]], artistic depictions of children increased dramatically, which did not have much effect on the social attitude toward children, however.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Pollock LA |title=Forgotten children : parent-child relations from 1500 to 1900|date=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-25009-2 |oclc=255923951}}</ref>

The French historian [[Philippe Ariès]] argued that during the 1600s, the concept of childhood began to emerge in Europe,<ref>{{cite book | title = Centuries of Childhood | vauthors = Ariès P | date = 1960| title-link = Centuries of Childhood | author-link = Philippe Ariès }}</ref> however other historians like [[Nicholas Orme]] have challenged this view and argued that childhood has been seen as a separate stage since at least the medieval period.<ref>{{cite book | title = Medieval Children |last1=Orme |first1=Nicholas |date=2001 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-08541-9}}</ref> Adults saw children as separate beings, innocent and in need of protection and training by the adults around them. The English philosopher [[John Locke]] was particularly influential in defining this new attitude towards children, especially with regard to his theory of the [[tabula rasa]], which considered the mind at birth to be a "blank slate". A corollary of this doctrine was that the mind of the child was born blank, and that it was the duty of the parents to imbue the child with correct notions. During the early period of [[capitalism]], the rise of a large, commercial middle class, mainly in the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] countries of the [[Dutch Republic]] and [[England]], brought about a new family ideology centred around the upbringing of children. [[Puritanism]] stressed the importance of individual salvation and concern for the spiritual welfare of children.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fox VC | title = Poor Children's Rights in Early Modern England. | journal = The Journal of Psychohistory | date = April 1996 | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 286–306 | url = https://www.proquest.com/openview/20f04350242eb7f2342f8b8bb8326d76/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1816657 }}</ref>

[[File:Fig 1 Sir Joshua Reynolds The Age of Innocence. Painted circa 1788. Frame contemporary with picture. From Houghton, 2005, 24.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''[[The Age of Innocence (painting)|The Age of Innocence]]'' {{Circa|1785}}/8. Reynolds emphasized the natural grace of children in his paintings.]]

The modern notion of childhood with its own autonomy and goals began to emerge during the 18th-century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and the [[Romanticism|Romantic period]] that followed it.<ref name="cohen"/><ref name="reeves"/> [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] formulated the romantic attitude towards children in his famous 1762 novel ''[[Emile: or, On Education]]''. Building on the ideas of [[John Locke]] and other 17th-century thinkers, Jean-Jaques Rousseau described childhood as a brief period of sanctuary before people encounter the perils and hardships of adulthood.<ref name="cohen">{{cite book | vauthors = Cohen D |title= The development of play |date=1993 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-1-134-86782-0 |edition=2nd | page = 20 }}</ref> Sir [[Joshua Reynolds]]' extensive children portraiture demonstrated the new enlightened attitudes toward young children. His 1788 painting ''[[The Age of Innocence (painting)|The Age o

Human

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ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Species of hominid in the genus Homo}} {{hatnote group|{{Redirect-several|Human|Mankind|Humankind|Human Race|Human Being|Homo sapiens}} {{Distinguish|Person}}}} {{Good article}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}} {{Speciesbox | name = Human | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|0.3|0}} Chibanian – present | image = Akha cropped hires.JPG <!--The choice of image has been discussed at length. Please don't change..."

{{Short description|Species of hominid in the genus Homo}}
{{hatnote group|{{Redirect-several|Human|Mankind|Humankind|Human Race|Human Being|Homo sapiens}}
{{Distinguish|Person}}}}
{{Good article}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Human
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|0.3|0}} [[Chibanian]] – [[Holocene|present]]
| image = Akha cropped hires.JPG 
| image_caption = Male (left) and female (right) [[adult]] humans

| taxon = Homo sapiens
| authority = [[Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| range_map = World Population Density Map 2020.png
| range_map_caption = ''Homo sapiens'' population density (2020)
| synonyms =
}}
'''Humans''', scientifically known as '''''Homo sapiens''','' are [[primates]] that belong to the [[Family (biology)|biological family]] of [[great ape]]s and are characterized by [[Prehistory of nakedness and clothing#Evolution of hairlessness|hairlessness]], [[bipedality]], and high [[Human intelligence|intelligence]]. Humans have large [[Human brain|brains]] [[Brain-body mass ratio|compared to body size]], enabling more advanced [[cognitive]] skills that facilitate successful adaptation to varied environments, development of sophisticated [[tool]]s, and formation of complex [[social structures]] and [[civilization]]s.

Humans are [[Sociality|highly social]], with individual humans tending to belong to a [[Level of analysis|multi-layered]] network of distinct [[social groups]] – from [[families]] and [[peer groups]] to [[corporations]] and [[State (polity)|political states]]. As such, [[social interaction]]s between humans have established a wide variety of [[Value theory|values]], [[norm (sociology)|social norms]], [[language]]s, and [[traditions]] (collectively termed [[institutions]]), each of which bolsters human [[society]]. Humans are also highly [[curious]]: the desire to understand and influence [[Phenomenon|phenomena]] has motivated humanity's development of [[science]], [[technology]], [[philosophy]], [[mythology]], [[religion]], and other frameworks of [[knowledge]]; humans also study themselves through such domains as [[anthropology]], [[social science]], [[history]], [[psychology]], and [[medicine]]. As of 2025, there are estimated to be [[World population|more than 8 billion living humans]].

For most of their history, humans were [[nomadic]] hunter-gatherers. Humans began exhibiting [[behavioral modernity]] about 160,000–60,000 years ago. The [[Neolithic Revolution]] occurred independently in multiple locations, the earliest [[Origins of agriculture in West Asia|in Southwest Asia]] 13,000 years ago, and saw the emergence of [[agriculture]] and permanent [[human settlement]]; in turn, this led to the [[Cradle of civilization|development of civilization]] and kickstarted a period of continuous (and ongoing) [[population growth]] and rapid [[technological change]]. Since then, a number of civilizations have risen and fallen, while a number of [[Sociocultural evolution|sociocultural]] and [[History of technology|technological]] developments have resulted in significant changes to the human lifestyle.

Humans are [[omnivorous]], capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material, and have [[Control of fire by early humans|used fire]] and other forms of heat to prepare and [[cooking|cook]] food since the time of ''[[Homo erectus]]''. Humans are generally [[Diurnality|diurnal]], [[sleep]]ing on average seven to nine hours per day. Humans have had a dramatic [[Human impact on the environment|effect on the environment]]. They are [[apex predator]]s, being rarely preyed upon by other species.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Roopnarine PD |date=March 2014 |title=Humans are apex predators |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=111 |issue=9 |pages=E796 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111E.796R |doi=10.1073/pnas.1323645111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3948303 |pmid=24497513 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Human population growth, industrialization, land development, [[overconsumption]] and combustion of [[fossil fuels]] have led to [[environmental destruction]] and [[pollution]] that significantly contributes to the ongoing [[Holocene extinction|mass extinction]] of other forms of life.<ref>{{cite web |date=5 May 2019 |title=Landmark analysis documents the alarming global decline of nature |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/landmark-analysis-documents-alarming-global-decline-nature |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026232451/https://www.science.org/content/article/landmark-analysis-documents-alarming-global-decline-nature |archive-date=26 October 2021 |access-date=9 May 2021 |website=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science|AAAS]] |vauthors=Stokstad E}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Pimm S, Raven P, Peterson A, Sekercioglu CH, Ehrlich PR |date=July 2006 |title=Human impacts on the rates of recent, present, and future bird extinctions |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=103 |issue=29 |pages=10941–10946 |bibcode=2006PNAS..10310941P |doi=10.1073/pnas.0604181103 |pmc=1544153 |pmid=16829570 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Within the last century, humans have explored challenging environments such as [[Antarctica]], the [[deep sea]], and [[outer space]], though human habitation in these environments is typically limited in duration and restricted to scientific, [[military]], or [[Industry (economics)|industrial]] expeditions. Humans have visited the [[Moon]] and sent human-made spacecraft to other [[celestial bodies]], becoming the first known species to do so.

Although the term "humans" technically equates with all members of the genus ''[[Homo]]'', in common usage it generally refers to ''Homo sapiens'', the only [[Extant taxon|extant]] member. All other members of the genus ''Homo'', which are now extinct, are known as [[archaic humans]], and the term "modern human" is used to distinguish ''Homo sapiens'' from archaic humans. [[Early modern human|Anatomically modern humans]] emerged at least 300,000 years ago in Africa, evolving from ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]'' or a similar species. Migrating [[Recent African origin of modern humans|out of Africa]], they gradually replaced and [[Hybrid (biology)|interbred]] with local populations of archaic humans. Multiple hypotheses for the extinction of archaic human species [[Neanderthal extinction|such as Neanderthals]] include competition, violence, interbreeding with ''Homo sapiens'', or inability to adapt to climate change. [[Gene]]s and the [[Environment (biophysical)|environment]] influence [[human biology|human biological]] variation in visible characteristics, [[physiology]], disease susceptibility, mental abilities, body size, and life span. Though humans vary in many traits (such as genetic predispositions and physical features), humans are among the least genetically diverse primates. Any two humans are at least 99% genetically similar.

Humans are [[sex differences in humans|sexually dimorphic]]: generally, [[man|males]] have greater body strength and [[woman|females]] have a higher [[body fat]] percentage. At [[puberty]], humans develop [[secondary sex characteristic]]s. Females are capable of [[pregnancy]], usually between puberty, at around 12 years old, and [[menopause]], around the age of 50. [[Childbirth]] is dangerous, with a high risk of complications and [[death]]. Often, both the mother and the father provide care for their children, who are [[Precociality and altriciality|helpless at birth]].

== Etymology and definition ==
{{Further|Names for the human species|Human taxonomy|}}
[[File:Carl von Linné.png|thumb|[[Carl Linnaeus]] coined the name ''Homo sapiens''.]]
All modern humans are classified into the [[species]] ''Homo sapiens'', coined by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in his 1735 work ''[[Systema Naturae]]''.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Spamer EE |date=29 January 1999|title=Know Thyself: Responsible Science and the Lectotype of Homo sapiens Linnaeus, 1758|journal=Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences |volume=149 |issue=1 |pages=109–114 |jstor=4065043}}</ref> The [[Name of a biological genus|generic name]] ''[[Homo]]'' is a learned 18th-century derivation from Latin {{lang|la|homō}}, which refers to humans of either sex.<ref>{{cite book|author=Porkorny|year=1959|title=[[IEW]]|at=s.v. "g'hðem" pp. 414–116}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Homo |dictionary=Dictionary.com |publisher=Random House |url=https://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Homo |date=23 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927011551/https://dictionary.reference.com/browse/homo |archive-date=27 September 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> The word ''human'' can refer to all members of the ''Homo'' genus.<ref name="Barras-2016">{{cite web |title=We don't know which species should be classed as 'human' |url=https://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160111-what-is-it-that-makes-you-a-human-and-not-something-else |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826223800/http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160111-what-is-it-that-makes-you-a-human-and-not-something-else |archive-date=26 August 2021 |access-date=31 March 2021 |website=BBC |first=Colin|last=Barras|date=11 January 2016}}</ref> The name ''Homo sapiens'' means 'wise man' or 'knowledgeable man'.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Spamer EE|date=1999|title=Know Thyself: Responsible Science and the Lectotype of Homo sapiens Linnaeus, 1758|journal=Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia|volume=149|pages=109–114|issn=0097-3157|jstor=4065043}}</ref> There is disagreement if certain extinct members of the genus, namely [[Neanderthal]]s, should be included as a separate species of humans or as a [[subspecies]] of ''H. sapiens''.<ref name="Barras-2016" />

''Human'' is a [[loanword]] of [[Middle English]] from [[Old French]] {{lang|fro|humain}}, ultimately from [[Latin]] {{lang|la|hūmānus}}, the adjectival form of {{lang|la|homō}} ('man' – in the sense of humanity).<ref>{{cite book|title=[[OED]]|at=[[Sub verbo|s.v.]] "human"}}</ref> The native English term ''[[Man (word)|man]]'' can refer to the species generally (a synonym for ''humanity'') as well as to human males. It may also refer to individuals of either sex.<ref>{{cite dictionary |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/man |title=Man |quote=Definition 2: a man belonging to a particular category (as by birth, residence, membership, or occupation) – usually used in combination |dictionary=[[Merriam-Webster Dictionary]] |archive-date=22 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922050822/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/man |url-status=live |access-date=14 September 2017}}</ref>

Despite the fact that the word ''animal'' is colloquially used as an antonym for ''human'',<ref>{{Cite dictionary |title=Thesaurus results for human |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/human |access-date=21 May 2022 |dictionary=[[Merriam-Webster Dictionary]] |archive-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628010110/https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/human |url-status=live}}</ref> and contrary to a [[List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics#Evolution and paleontology|common biological misconception]], humans are in a biological sense [[animal]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 September 2021 |title=Misconceptions about evolution – Understanding Evolution |url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/teach-evolution/misconceptions-about-evolution/ |access-date=21 May 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606191558/https://evolution.berkeley.edu/teach-evolution/misconceptions-about-evolution/ |url-status=live|website=University of California, Berkeley }}</ref> The word ''[[person]]'' is often used interchangeably with ''human'', but philosophical debate exists as to whether [[personhood]] applies to all humans or all [[sentient being]]s, and further if a human can lose personhood (such as by going into a [[persistent vegetative state]]) and what is the [[beginning of human personhood]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Concept of Personhood |url=https://medicine.missouri.edu/centers-institutes-labs/health-ethics/faq/personhood |access-date=4 July 2021 |website=[[University of Missouri School of Medicine]] |archive-date=4 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304011726/https://medicine.missouri.edu/centers-institutes-labs/health-ethics/faq/personhood |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Evolution ==
{{Main|Human evolution}}
Humans belong to the biological [[Family (biology)|family]] of apes ([[Hominoidea|superfamily Hominoidea]]).<ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Tuttle RH |title=International Encyclopedia of Biological Anthropology |date=4 October 2018 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]] |isbn=978-1-118-58442-2 |veditors=Trevathan W, Cartmill M, Dufour D, Larsen C |place=[[Hoboken]], [[New Jersey]], [[United States]]|pages=1–2|language=en|chapter=Hominoidea: conceptual history|doi=10.1002/9781118584538.ieba0246|s2cid=240125199|author-link=Russell Tuttle|access-date=26 May 2021|chapter-url=https://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118584538.ieba0246}}</ref> The [[Lineage (evolution)|lineage]] of apes that eventually gave rise to humans first split from [[gibbon]]s (family Hylobatidae), next [[orangutan]]s (genus ''Pongo''), then [[gorilla]]s (genus ''Gorilla''), and finally, [[chimpanzee]]s and [[bonobo]]s (genus ''[[Pan (genus)|Pan]]''). The last split, between the human and chimpanzee–bonobo lineages, took place around 8–4 million years ago, in the late [[Miocene]] epoch.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Goodman M, Tagle DA, Fitch DH, Bailey W, Czelusniak J, Koop BF, Benson P, Slightom JL |display-authors=6 |title=Primate evolution at the DNA level and a classification of hominoids |journal=[[Journal of Molecular Evolution]] |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=260–266 |date=March 1990 |pmid=2109087 |doi=10.1007/BF02099995 |s2cid=2112935 |bibcode=1990JMolE..30..260G}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Ruvolo M |date=March 1997 |title=Molecular phylogeny of the hominoids: inferences from multiple independent DNA sequence data sets |journal=[[Molecular Biology and Evolution]] |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=248–265|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025761|pmid=9066793|doi-access=free}}</ref> During this split, [[chromosome 2]] was formed from the joining of two other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared to 24 for the other apes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Human Chromosome 2 is a fusion of two ancestral chromosomes |url=https://www.evolutionpages.com/chromosome_2.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809040210/https://www.evolutionpages.com/chromosome_2.htm |archive-date=9 August 2011 |access-date=18 May 2006 |work=Evolution pages |vauthors=MacAndrew A}}</ref> Following their split with chimpanzees and bonobos, the [[Hominini|hominins]] diversified into many species and at least two distinct genera. All but one of these lineages – representing the genus ''[[Homo]]'' and its sole extant species ''Homo sapiens'' – are now extinct.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McNulty |first=Kieran P. |year=2016 |title=Hominin Taxonomy and Phylogeny: What's In A Name? |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/hominin-taxonomy-and-phylogeny-what-s-in-142102877/ |access-date=11 June 2022 |website=Nature Education Knowledge |language=en |archive-date=10 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110013134/https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/hominin-taxonomy-and-phylogeny-what-s-in-142102877/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Lucy Skeleton.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Reconstruction of [[Lucy (Australopithecus)|Lucy]]'','' the first ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' skeleton found]]
The genus ''Homo'' evolved from ''[[Australopithecus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Strait DS |title=The Evolutionary History of the Australopiths |journal=Evolution: Education and Outreach |date=September 2010 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=341–352 |doi=10.1007/s12052-010-0249-6 |s2cid=31979188 |language=en |issn=1936-6434 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Dunsworth HM |title=Origin of the Genus Homo |journal=Evolution: Education and Outreach |date=September 2010 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=353–366 |doi=10.1007/s12052-010-0247-8 |s2cid=43116946 |language=en |issn=1936-6434 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Though [[Human fossils|fossils]] from the transition are scarce, the earliest members of ''Homo'' share several key traits with ''Australopithecus''.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kimbel WH, Villmoare B |title=From Australopithecus to Homo: the transition that wasn't |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |volume =371 |issue=1698 |article-number=20150248 |date=July 2016 |pmid=27298460 |pmc=4920303 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0248 |s2cid=20267830}}</ref><ref name=Villmoare2015>{{cite journal |vauthors=Villmoare B, Kimbel WH, Seyoum C, Campisano CJ, DiMaggio EN, Rowan J, Braun DR, Arrowsmith JR, Reed KE |display-authors=6 |title=Paleoanthropology. Early Homo at 2.8 Ma from Ledi-Geraru, Afar, Ethiopia |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=347 |issue=6228 |pages=1352–1355 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25739410 |doi=10.1126/science.aaa1343 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2015Sci...347.1352V}}</ref> Due to the scant available evidence dating the time of divergence to the genus ''Homo'' does not have a consensus.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last=Wood |first=Bernard |date=28 June 2011 |title=Did early Homo migrate "out of" or "in to" Africa? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=108 |issue=26 |pages=10375–10376 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10810375W |doi=10.1073/pnas.1107724108 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3127876 |pmid=21677194 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Some studies using [[molecular clock]] techniques estimate the ''Homo'' genus appeared 4.30–2.56 million years ago,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Püschel |first1=Hans P. |last2=Bertrand |first2=Ornella C. |last3=O'Reilly |first3=Joseph E. |last4=Bobe |first4=René |last5=Püschel |first5=Thomas A. |title=Divergence-time estimates for hominins provide insight into encephalization and body mass trends in human evolution |journal=[[Nature Ecology & Evolution]] |date=June 2021 |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=808–819 |doi=10.1038/s41559-021-01431-1 |pmid=33795855 |bibcode=2021NatEE...5..808P |s2cid=232764044 |url=https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/publications/35151870-c7b5-477e-aca8-2c75c8382002|hdl=20.500.11820/35151870-c7b5-477e-aca8-2c75c8382002 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> while others contest that some early ''Homo'' species are incorrectly included in the genus and therefore put this estimate at about 1.87 million years ago.<ref name=":0" />

The earliest record of ''Homo'' is the 2.8 million-year-old specimen [[LD 350-1]] from [[Ethiopia]], and the earliest named species are ''[[Homo habilis]]'' and ''[[Homo rudolfensis]]'' which evolved by 2.3 million years ago.<ref name=Villmoare2015 /> ''[[Homo erectus|H. erectus]]'' (the African variant is sometimes called ''[[Homo ergaster|H. ergaster]]'') evolved 2 million years ago and was the first [[archaic human]] species to leave Africa and disperse across Eurasia.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhu Z, Dennell R, Huang W, Wu Y, Qiu S, Yang S, Rao Z, Hou Y, Xie J, Han J, Ouyang T |display-authors=6 |title=Hominin occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau since about 2.1 million years ago |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=559 |issue=7715 |pages=608–612 |date=July 2018

Obama family

2025-11-08T09:47:13Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|none}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2022}} {{pp-semi-blp|small=yes}} {{Infobox family | name = The Obama family | image = Barack Obama family portrait 2011.jpg | image_size = 250 | alt = The Obamas embracing and smiling | image_caption = Official White House portrait of President Barack Obama, First Lady Michelle Obama, and their daughters, Malia and Sasha, taken in the Oval Office in 2011 | region = United States (Chicago, Illinois|Chica..."

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{pp-semi-blp|small=yes}}
{{Infobox family
| name = The Obama family
| image = Barack Obama family portrait 2011.jpg
| image_size = 250
| alt = The Obamas embracing and smiling
| image_caption = Official White House portrait of President [[Barack Obama]], First Lady [[Michelle Obama]], and their daughters, Malia and Sasha, taken in the [[Oval Office]] in 2011
| region = United States ([[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] / [[Washington, D.C.]])
| origin = [[Kenya]] [[Hawaii]] [[Indonesia]] [[Chicago]]
| members = *[[Barack Obama]]
*[[Michelle Obama]]
*[[Ann Dunham]]
*[[Barack Obama Sr.]]
*[[Marian Robinson]]
| otherfamilies = Robinson, Dunham, Soetoro, Ng
}}
{{Barack Obama sidebar}}
The family of [[Barack Obama]], the 44th [[president of the United States]], is a prominent [[Americans|American]] family active in law, education, activism and politics. Obama's immediate family circle was the [[first family of the United States]] from 2009 to 2017 during [[Presidency of Barack Obama|Obama's presidency]], and are the first such family of African-American descent.<ref>{{cite news|last=Haygood|first=Wil|date=December 12, 2016|title=The Obamas came from a place we all came from|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/national/obama-legacy/historical-meaning-black-first-family.html}}</ref> His immediate family includes his wife [[Michelle Obama]] and daughters Malia and Sasha. Obama's wider ancestry is made up of people of [[Luo people|Kenyan (Luo)]], [[African-American]], and [[Old Stock American]] (including originally English, Scots-Irish, Welsh, German, and Swiss) ancestry.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2009-06-04-obama-roots_N.htm |title=Researchers: Obama has German roots |work=USA Today |date=June 4, 2009 |access-date=August 11, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ITgEAAAAMBAJ&q=obama+irish+smolenyak&pg=PA46|date=December 2008|title=The Quest for Obama's Irish Roots|author=Megan Smolenyak|publisher=ancestry.com}}</ref><ref name="Reitwiesner">{{Cite web|url=http://www.wargs.com/political/obama.html |title=Ancestry of Barack Obama |access-date=October 9, 2008 |last=Reitwiesner |first=William Addams |author-link=William Addams Reitwiesner}}</ref><ref name="soil">{{Cite news|first=Shailagh |last=Murray |title=A Family Tree Rooted In American Soil: Michelle Obama Learns About Her Slave Ancestors, Herself and Her Country |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/10/01/AR2008100103169.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |page=C01 |date=October 2, 2008 |access-date=October 10, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Secrets of Obama Family Unlocked |last=Sheridan |first=Michael |work=[[Muslim Observer]] |url=http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=ae5895fc29971b172938790be94ab107 |date=February 5, 2007 |access-date=November 21, 2008 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029202509/http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=ae5895fc29971b172938790be94ab107 |archive-date=October 29, 2008}}</ref>
{{TOC limit|3}}

==Immediate family==


===Michelle Obama===
{{main|Michelle Obama}}
Michelle LaVaughn Robinson Obama (born January 17, 1964) is an American lawyer, university administrator, and writer who served as the [[first lady of the United States]] from 2009 to 2017.<ref name="TheObamas">{{cite web|title=The Obamas|url=https://www.obamalibrary.gov/obamas|access-date=September 8, 2018|website=[[Obama Library]]|date=October 20, 2016}}</ref> She is Barack Obama's wife, and was the [[first African-American]] first lady. Raised on the [[South Side of Chicago]],<ref name=tn>{{cite news|url=http://www.style.com/vogue/feature/2007_Sept_Michelle_Obama|title=The natural|access-date=January 8, 2009|date=September 2007|work=[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]|author=Johnson, Rebecca|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116125432/http://style.com/vogue/feature/2007_Sept_Michelle_Obama|archive-date=January 16, 2009}}</ref> Michelle Obama is a graduate of [[Princeton University]] and [[Harvard Law School]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2015/03/michelle-obama-princeton-harvard-116390/|title=Michelle Obama, Race and the Ivy League|date=March 26, 2015|work=[[Politico]]| first=Peter| last=Slevin}}</ref> and spent her early legal career working at the law firm [[Sidley Austin]], where she met her husband.<ref name="WMMB">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/26/AR2008092602856.html|title=When Michelle Met Barack|last=Mundy|first=Liza|date= October 5, 2008|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=October 25, 2008}}</ref> She subsequently worked as the associate dean of Student Services at the [[University of Chicago]]<ref name=UCChron96>{{cite journal|journal=University of Chicago Chronicle|url=http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/960606/obama.shtml|title=Obama named first Associate Dean of Student Services|date=June 6, 1996|volume=15|issue=19|access-date=April 4, 2009}}</ref> and the vice president for Community and External Affairs of the [[University of Chicago Medical Center]].<ref name=UChicago2005>{{cite press release|url=http://www.uchospitals.edu/news/2005/20050509-obama.html|publisher=University of Chicago Medical Center|title=Michelle Obama appointed vice president for community and external affairs at the University of Chicago Hospitals|date=May 9, 2005|access-date=April 4, 2009}}</ref> Barack and Michelle married in 1992.<ref name=MOHSMOMF>{{cite news|first=Scott |last=Fornek |title=Michelle Obama: 'He Swept Me Off My Feet' |work=[[Chicago Sun-Times]] |date=October 3, 2007 |url=http://www.suntimes.com/news/politics/obama/585261,CST-NWS-wedding03.stng |access-date=December 2, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214054327/http://www.suntimes.com/news/politics/obama/585261%2CCST-NWS-wedding03.stng |archive-date=December 14, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Michelle campaigned for her [[Barack Obama 2008 presidential campaign|husband's presidential bid]] throughout 2007 and 2008, delivering a keynote address at the [[2008 Democratic National Convention]].<ref>{{cite news|author=Suellentrop, Chris|url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/08/25/michelle-obamas-high-note/?scp=7&sq=Michelle%20Obama&st=cse|title=Michelle Obama's high note|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=August 25, 2008|access-date=August 27, 2008}}</ref> She returned to speak at the [[2012 Democratic National Convention]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/michelle-obama-ann-romney-get-positive-ratings-after-conventions|date=December 14, 2012|work=CBS News|title=Michelle Obama, Ann Romney get positive ratings after conventions}}</ref> and again during the [[2016 Democratic National Convention]] in [[Philadelphia]], where she delivered a speech in support of the Democratic presidential nominee, and fellow first lady, [[Hillary Clinton]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/jul/26/michelle-obama-convention-speech-female-president |date=July 26, 2016 |last=Smith |first=David |website=[[The Guardian]] |title=Michelle Obama's stirring speech brings Democratic convention to tears}}</ref> As first lady, Michelle Obama sought to become a role model for women, an advocate for poverty awareness, education, nutrition, physical activity and healthy eating, and became a fashion icon.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/shopping/chi-michelle-obama-1112_qnov12,0,5421281.story|work=[[Chicago Tribune]]|title=Michelle Obama emerges as an American fashion icon|access-date=June 4, 2011|first=Wendy|last=Donahue}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/apr/10/michelle-obama-settling-in-as-a-role-model/|first=Christina|last= Bellantoni |title=Michelle Obama settling in as a role model|website=[[The Washington Times]]|date=April 10, 2009|access-date=June 4, 2011}}</ref>

==={{anchor|Malia Obama and Sasha Obama|Malia Obama|Sasha Obama|Malia and Sasha Obama|Sasha and Malia Obama}} Malia Obama and Sasha Obama===

Barack and Michelle Obama have two daughters: Malia Ann ({{IPAc-en|m|ə|ˈ|l|iː|ə}}), born July 4, 1998,<ref>[http://blackamericaweb.com/2014/05/21/first-lady-michelle-obama-says-malia-will-be-driving-this-summer/ First Lady Michelle Obama says Malia will be driving this summer], BlackAmericaWeb.com, Reach Media, Inc., May 21, 2014, Superville, D. Retrieved May 24, 2014.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/chi-white-house-birthday-03-jul03,0,7370155.story |title=Malia Obama's birthday: President's oldest daughter will turn 11 as thousands descend on White House lawn for 4th of July |work=Chicago Tribune |date=July 3, 2009 |access-date=August 11, 2010 |first=John |last=McCormick |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817095400/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/chi-white-house-birthday-03-jul03,0,7370155.story |archive-date=August 17, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and Natasha Marian (known as Sasha {{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɑː|ʃ|ə}}), born June 10, 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|last=O'Neill |first=Xana |url=http://www.nbcwashington.com/news/archive/NATL-Birthday-Girl-Malia-.html |title=Birthday Girl Sasha Obama Celebrates in London |publisher=NBC Washington |date=June 10, 2009 |access-date=August 11, 2010}}</ref> They were both delivered at [[University of Chicago Medical Center]] by their parents' friend and physician Anita Blanchard.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/14/us/politics/14friends.html|title=Obama's Friends Form Strategy to Stay Close|date=December 13, 2008|access-date=March 6, 2011|work=The New York Times|first=Jodi|last=Kantor}}</ref> Sasha was the youngest child to reside in the White House since [[John F. Kennedy Jr.|John F. Kennedy Jr.]] arrived as an infant in 1961.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.baltimoresun.com/topic/politics/sasha-obama-PECLB004381.topic |title=Sasha Obama |website=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |access-date=January 31, 2009}}</ref> In 2014, Malia and Sasha were named two of "The 25 Most Influential Teens of 2014" by ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://time.com/3486048/most-influential-teens-2014/ |title=Most Influential Teens 2014 |date=October 13, 2014 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref>{{Paragraph}}

[[File:President Barack Obama, First Lady Michelle Obama, and daughters Malia and Sasha pose for a family portrait with Bo and Sunny in the Rose Garden of the White House.jpg|thumb|Malia Obama (left) and Sasha Obama (right) pose with their parents, [[Barack Obama|President Barack Obama]] and First Lady [[Michelle Obama]], for an official family portrait with their dogs, Bo and Sunny, in the [[White House Rose Garden|Rose Garden of the White House]], 2015.]]
Before his inauguration, President Obama published an open letter to his daughters in ''[[Parade (magazine)|Parade]]'' magazine, describing what he wants for them and every child in America: "to grow up in a world with no limits on your dreams and no achievements beyond your reach, and to grow into compassionate, committed women who will help build that world".<ref name="daughters1">{{Cite news|title=What I Want for You—And Every Child in America |last= Obama |first= Barack |url=http://www.parade.com/news/2009/01/barack-obama-letter-to-my-daughters.html |magazine=[[Parade (magazine)|Parade]] |date=January 13, 2009}}</ref>{{Paragraph}}

While living in Chicago, the Obamas kept busy schedules, as the Associated Press reported: "soccer, dance and drama for Malia, gymnastics and tap for Sasha, piano and tennis for both".<ref>{{Cite news |title=Barack Obama Gives Daughter $1 Allowance a Week |last=Sobieraj Westfall |first=Sandra |work=[[People (magazine)|People]] |url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20214569_1,00.html |date=June 23, 2008 |access-date=November 21, 2008 |archive-date=November 8, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081108043450/http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20214569_1,00.html |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first=Will |last=Lester |title=Obama daughters keep hectic schedules of their own |url=http://elections.apnews.com/apelect/db_6911/contentdetail.htm;jsessionid=8314A43012AB5FF1D0697247362D8752?contentguid=H95QubFb&full=true |work=Associated Press |date=July 23, 2008 |access-date=August 4, 2008 |archive-date=September 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080901173454/http://elections.apnews.com/apelect/db_6911/contentdetail.htm;jsessionid=8314A43012AB5FF1D0697247362D8752?contentguid=H95QubFb&full=true |url-status=dead}}</ref> In July 2008, the family gave an interview to the television series ''[[Access Hollywood]]''. Obama later said they regretted allowing the children to be included.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hiro |first=Anne |url=http://blogs.suntimes.com/sweet/2008/07/obama_regrets_letting_access_h.html |title=Obama regrets letting 'Access Hollywood' interview daughters. Won't do it again. MSNBC's Dan Abrams gets the story behind the story. -Lynn Sweet |work=Chicago Sun-Times |access-date=January 31, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123130733/http://blogs.suntimes.com/sweet/2008/07/obama_regrets_letting_access_h.html |archive-date=January 23, 2009}}</ref> Malia and Sasha both graduated from the private [[Sidwell Friends School]] in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington, D.C.]], the same school that [[Chelsea Clinton]], [[Tricia Nixon Cox]], [[Archibald Roosevelt]] and the grandchildren of [[Joe Biden]] (when he was [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]) attended.<ref>{{Cite news|title=And the Winner Is ... Sidwell Friends|last=Swarns |first=Rachel|work=The New York Times|url=http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/11/21/and-the-winner-is-sidwell-friends/|date=November 21, 2008| access-date=November 21, 2008}}</ref> The Obama girls began classes there on January 5, 2009;<ref name="start-sidwell09">{{Cite news| title=Obama girls start school with photographers in tow | last=Tolin|first=Lisa| url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5g6mv_lkODQMmQdpyIEnr8Zpm5mogD95H8KA80| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122233148/http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5g6mv_lkODQMmQdpyIEnr8Zpm5mogD95H8KA80| url-status=dead| archive-date=January 22, 2009|agency=Associated Press | date=January 5, 2009|access-date=January 6, 2009}}</ref> Malia graduated in 2016. Before the family moved to Washington in 2009, both girls attended the private [[University of Chicago Laboratory School]].<ref>Valerie Strauss, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2015/07/09/education-secretary-duncans-children-to-go-to-chicago-private-school-he-attended/ Education Secretary Duncan's children to go to Chicago private school he attended], ''The Washington Post'' (July 9, 2015).</ref>

In his victory speech on the night of his election, President Obama repeated his promise to Sasha and Malia to get a puppy to take with them to the White House.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Move over Barney, new dog moving into White House |last= Ahmed |first= Saeed |publisher=CNN |url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/11/05/presidential.pets/index.html |date=November 5, 2008 |access-date=November 21, 2008}}</ref> The selection was slow because Malia is allergic to animal dander;<ref>{{Cite news|title=Obama: Getting a dog isn't easy |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_10927292 |date=November 7, 2008 |access-date=November 21, 2008}}</ref> the president subsequently said that the choice had been narrowed down to either a [[labradoodle]] or a [[Portuguese Water Dog]], and that they hoped to find a shelter animal.<ref>{{Cite news| url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2009-01-11-obama-dog_N.htm | title=Obamas down to Labradoodle or Portuguese water dog | author=Janice Lloyd |newspaper=USA Today | date=January 12, 2009 | access-date=January 28, 2009}}</ref> On April 12, 2009, it was reported that the Obamas had adopted a six-month-old Portuguese Water Dog given to them as a gift by Senator [[Ted Kennedy]];<ref name="splash" /> Malia and Sasha named the dog [[Bo (dog)|Bo]].<ref name="splash">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/11/AR2009041102484.html?hpid=artslot |title=First Puppy Makes a Big Splash |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=March 24, 2013 |first=Manuel |last=Roig-Franzia |date=April 12, 2009}}</ref> The White House referred to Bo as the [[United States presidential pets|First Dog]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Meet Bo, the First Dog|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/09/04/12/Meet-Bo-the-First-Dog| author=Jesse Lee|date=April 12, 2009 |via=[[NARA|National Archives]]|work=[[whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=June 1, 2012}}</ref> In 2013, the family adopted a second Portuguese Water Dog named [[Sunny (dog)|Sunny]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/barackobama/10262977/Barack-Obama-Sunny-the-dog-fills-void-at-White-House.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/barackobama/10262977/Barack-Obama-Sunny-the-dog-fills-void-at-White-House.html |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Barack Obama: Sunny the dog 'fills void at White House' |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=December 27, 2013 |location=London |date=August 23, 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

As a high school student, Malia Obama spent a portion of the summer in 2014 and 2015 working in television studios in New York and Los Angeles.<ref name="Harvard">{{cite news|author1=Julie Hirschfeld Davis |author2=Nicholas Fandos |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/02/us/politics/malia-obama-to-attend-harvard-but-not-until-2017.html|title=Malia Obama to Attend Harvard, but Not Until 2017|work=The New York Times|date=May 1, 2016|access-date=May 1, 2016}}</ref> She spent the summer of 2016 working as an intern in the U.S. Embassy in [[Madrid, Spain]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2016/06/28/malia-obama-to-spend-summer-as-intern-at-us-embassy-in-spain/|title=Malia Obama to spend summer as an intern at U.S. Embassy in Spain|date=June 28, 2016|work=Fox News Latino|access-date=November 29, 2016}}</ref>

During the week June 26, 2016, to July 3, 2016, Michelle, Sasha, Malia, and Michelle's mother Marian Robinson went to [[Liberia]] to promote the Let Girls Learn Peace initiative, for which the United States has provided $27 million in aid.<ref name="RoadTrip">{{cite web |url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/michelle-malia-sasha-obama-travel-163709228.html |title=Obama travel for let girls learn initiative |date=June 30, 2016 |publisher=Yahoo! Politics |access-date=June 30, 2016}}</ref> They met with [[Ellen Johnson Sirleaf]], the former [[president of Liberia]] and the first elected female head of state in Africa.<ref name="RoadTrip"/> Then they went to Morocco, where they had a panel with [[Freida Pinto]] and [[Meryl Streep]] moderated by CNN's [[Isha Sesay]] in Marrakesh and delivered a substantive amount of

Parent

2025-11-08T09:29:23Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Caregiver of offspring in their own species}} {{Other uses}} Parents and child A '''parent''' is either the progenitor of a child or, in humans, it can refer to a caregiver or legal guardian, generally called an '''adoptive parent''' or '''step-parent'''. Parents who are progenitors are first-degree relatives and have 50% genetic meet. A female can also..."

{{Short description|Caregiver of offspring in their own species}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Parents and their baby.jpg|thumb|Parents and child]]
A '''parent''' is either the [[progenitor]] of a [[child]] or, in [[human]]s, it can refer to a caregiver or [[legal guardian]], generally called an '''adoptive parent''' or '''step-parent'''. Parents who are progenitors are [[First-degree relative|first-degree relatives]] and have 50% genetic meet. A [[female]] can also become a parent through [[surrogacy]]. Some parents may be [[Adoption|adoptive]] parents, who nurture and raise an offspring, but are not related to the child. [[Orphan]]s without adoptive parents can be raised by their [[grandparent]]s or other [[family member]]s.

A parent can also be elaborated as an [[ancestor]] removed one [[generation]]. With recent medical advances, it is possible to have more than two biological parents.<ref>{{Cite news | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-23079276 | title = UK government backs three-person IVF | access-date = 30 June 2013| work = BBC News | date = 2013-06-28 | last1 = Gallagher | first1 = James }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=[[Nadine Taub]]|title=The Law of Sex Discrimination|author2=Beth Anne Wolfson|author3=Carla M. Palumbo|page=374}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author = Browne C. Lewis | date = 2012 | title = Papa's Baby: Paternity and Artificial Insemination | page = 136}}</ref> Examples of [[Third-party reproduction|third biological parents]] include instances involving surrogacy or a third person who has provided DNA samples during an assisted reproductive procedure that has altered the recipients' genetic material.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Reproductive Technologies | page =25 | author = Louise I. Gerdes |date = 2009}}</ref>

The most common types of parents are [[mothers]], [[fathers]], [[step-parents]], and [[grandparents]]. A mother is "a woman in relation to a child or children to whom she has given birth."<ref>{{cite web|title=mother definition|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mother?rskey=YplwRN&result=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010013824/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mother?rskey=YplwRN&result=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 10, 2012|website=www.oxforddictionaries.com|publisher=Oxford Dictionaries}}</ref> The extent to which it is socially acceptable for a parent to be involved in their offspring's life varies from culture to culture, however one that exhibits too little involvement is sometimes said to exhibit [[child neglect]],<ref>{{Cite book | title = Racial Disproportionality in Child Welfare | page =2 | author = Marian S Harris | date =2014}}</ref> while one that is too involved is sometimes said to be [[overprotective]], cosseting, [[:wikt:nosy|nosey]], or [[intrusiveness|intrusive]].<ref>{{Cite book | title = Evidence in the Psychological Therapies: A Critical Guidance for Practitioners | author = Bernard Roberts | date = 2005 | page = 149}}</ref>

== Types ==

===Biological ===
[[File: Barack Obama family portrait 2011.jpg|thumb|[[Obama family]] portrait, 2011]]

A person's biological parents are the persons from whom the individual inherits their [[gene]]s. The term is generally only used if there is a need to distinguish an individual's foster parents from their biological parents, For example, an individual whose father has remarried may call the father's new wife their [[stepmother]] and continue to refer to their mother normally, though someone who has had little or no contact with their biological mother may address their [[foster parent]] as their mother, and their biological mother as such, or perhaps by her first name. {{citation needed|date=December 2019}}

=== Mother ===
[[File:Postpartum baby2.jpg|thumb|Newborn baby]]

A mother is a female who has a maternal connection with another individual, whether arising from [[Pregnancy|conception]], by giving [[Childbirth|birth]] to, or [[Parenting|raising]] the individual in the role of a parent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allwords.com/word-mother.html |title=Definition from |publisher=Allwords.com |date=2007-09-14 |access-date=2011-11-04}}</ref> More than one female may have such connections with an individual. Because of the complexity and differences of a mother's social, cultural, and religious definitions and roles, it is challenging to define a mother to suit a universally accepted definition. The utilization of a surrogate mother may result in explication of there being two biological mothers.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bromham|first1=David|title=Philosophical Ethics in Reproductive Medicine|date=1990|page=57}}</ref>

=== Father ===
[[File:Timothy L. Pesto and Kaitlyn E. Pesto play football as their father watches, Tuscaloosa, Alabama LCCN2010638252.jpg|thumb|Timothy L. Pesto and Kaitlyn E. Pesto play football as their father watches, Tuscaloosa, Alabama.]]

A father is a male parent of any type of offspring.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/father |title=TheFreeDictionary |access-date=2014-10-07}}</ref> It may be the person who shares in the raising of a child or who has provided the biological material, the [[sperm]], which results in the birth of the child.

=== Grandparent ===
Grandparents are the parents of a person's own parent, whether that be a father or a mother. Every sexually reproducing creature who is not a [[genetic chimera]] has a maximum of four [[gene]]tic grandparents, eight genetic [[Great grandparents|great-grandparents]], sixteen genetic great-great-grandparents and so on. Rarely, such as in the case of sibling or half-sibling [[incest]], these [[pedigree collapse|numbers are lower]].

== Paternity issues ==
{{Main article|DNA paternity testing}}
A paternity test is conducted to prove paternity, that is, whether a male is the biological father of another individual. This may be relevant in view of [[Fathers' rights movement|rights]] and duties of the father. Similarly, a maternity test can be carried out. This is less common, because at least during [[childbirth]] and [[pregnancy]], except in the case of a pregnancy involving [[embryo transfer]] or [[egg donation]], it is obvious who the [[mother]] is. However, it is used in a number of events such as legal battles where a person's maternity is challenged, where the mother is uncertain because she has not seen her child for an extended period of time, or where deceased persons need to be identified.

Although not constituting completely reliable evidence, several [[List of Mendelian traits in humans|congenital traits]] such as attached [[earlobe]]s, a [[widow's peak]], or the [[cleft chin]], may serve as tentative indicators of (non-) parenthood as they are readily observable and inherited via [[Dominance relationship|autosomal-dominant]] genes.

A more reliable way to ascertain parenthood is via DNA analysis (known as [[genetic fingerprinting]] of individuals), although older methods have included [[blood type|ABO blood group typing]], analysis of various other [[protein]]s and [[enzyme]]s, or using [[human leukocyte antigen]]s. The current techniques for paternity testing use [[polymerase chain reaction]] and [[restriction fragment length polymorphism]]. For the most part, however, genetic fingerprinting has all but taken over all the other forms of testing.

== Roles and responsibilities ==

=== Guardianship ===
A legal guardian is a person who has the legal authority (and the corresponding duty) to care for the personal and property interests of another person, called a ward. Guardians are typically used in three situations: guardianship for an incapacitated senior (due to old age or infirmity), guardianship for a minor, and guardianship for [[Developmental disability|developmentally disabled]] adults.

Most countries and states have laws that provide that the parents of a minor child are the legal guardians of that child, and that the parents can designate who shall become the child's legal guardian in the event of death, subject to the approval of the court. Some jurisdictions allow a parent of a child to exercise the authority of a legal guardian without a formal court appointment. In such circumstances the parent acting in that capacity is called the natural guardian of that parent's child.

=== Parenting ===
{{Main article|Parenting}}

[[Parenting]] or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the [[physical fitness|physical]], [[Emotional development|emotional]], social, financial, and [[intellectual development]] of a [[child]] from [[infant|infancy]] to [[adult]]hood. Parenting refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship.<ref name="Davies">{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Martin|title=The Blackwell encyclopedia of social work|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8iQAy9lZy9YC&pg=PA245|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2000|page=245|isbn=978-0-631-21451-9}}</ref>

== Gender and gender mix ==
A child has at least one biological [[father]] and at least one biological [[mother]], but not every [[family]] is a traditional [[nuclear family]]. There are many variants, such as [[adoption]], [[shared parenting]], [[Stepfamily|stepfamilies]], and [[LGBT parenting]], over which there has been controversy.

The social science literature rejects the notion that there is an optimal gender mix of parents or that children and adolescents with [[LGBT parenting|same-sex parents]] suffer any developmental disadvantages compared with those with two opposite-sex parents.<ref>Lamb, Michael (2009). [http://www.glad.org/uploads/docs/cases/2009-11-17-doma-aff-lamb.pdf#page=13 Affidavit – United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts]{{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name=apsp>{{cite web |author1=Short, Elizabeth |author2=Riggs, Damien W. |author3=Perlesz, Amaryll |author4=Brown, Rhonda |author5=Kane, Graeme |name-list-style=amp |url=http://www.psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/LGBT-Families-Lit-Review.pdf#page=8 |title=Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Parented Families – A Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society |access-date=2011-11-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304014530/http://www.psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/LGBT-Families-Lit-Review.pdf#page=8 |archive-date=2011-03-04 }}</ref> The professionals and the major associations now agree there is a well-established and accepted consensus in the field that there is no optimal gender combination of parents.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.lambdalegal.org/in-court/downloads/varnum_ia_20090403_supreme-court-decision.pdf#page=10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229034140/http://data.lambdalegal.org/in-court/downloads/varnum_ia_20090403_supreme-court-decision.pdf#page=10 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-12-29 |title=In The Supreme Court of Iowa No. 07–1499 |access-date=2011-11-04 }}</ref> The family studies literature indicates that it is family processes (such as the quality of parenting and relationships within the family) that contribute to determining children's well-being and "outcomes", rather than family structures, per se, such as the number, gender, sexuality and co-habitation status of parents.<ref name="apsp"/>

== Genetics ==

=== Parent–offspring conflict ===
{{Main article|Parent–offspring conflict}}

An offspring who hates their father is called a misopater, one that hates their mother is a misomater, while a parent that hates their offspring is a misopedist.<ref>Francis, Darryl. "Iatrologs and Iatronyms." Word Ways 4.2 (1971): 8.</ref><ref>Davies, Jon. "Imagining intergenerationality: Representation and rhetoric in the pedophile movie." GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 13.2 (2007): 369-385.</ref> Parent–offspring conflict describes the [[evolutionary conflict]] arising from differences in optimal [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of parents and their [[offspring]]. While parents tend to maximize the number of offspring, the offspring can increase their fitness by getting a greater share of [[parental investment]] often by competing with their [[sibling]]s. The theory was proposed by [[Robert Trivers]] in 1974 and extends the more general [[Gene-centered view of evolution|selfish gene theory]] and has been used to explain many observed biological phenomena.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Trivers, R.L.|title=Parent–offspring conflict|doi=10.1093/icb/14.1.249 |jstor=3881986 |year=1974 |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |volume=14 |issue=1|pages=249–264|doi-access=free }}</ref> For example, in some [[bird]] species, although parents often lay two eggs and attempt to raise two or more young, the strongest fledgling takes a greater share of the food brought by parents and will often kill the weaker sibling, an act known as [[siblicide]].

===Empathy===
David Haig has argued that human [[fetus|fetal]] genes would be selected to draw more resources from the mother than it would be optimal for the mother to give, a hypothesis that has received empirical support. The [[placenta]], for example, secretes allocrine [[hormone]]s that decrease the sensitivity of the mother to [[insulin]] and thus make a larger supply of blood sugar available to the fetus. The mother responds by increasing the level of insulin in her bloodstream, the placenta has insulin receptors that stimulate the production of insulin-degrading [[enzyme]]s which counteract this effect.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Haig, D. |title=Genetic conflicts in human pregnancy |pmid=8115596 |jstor=3037249 |url=http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/haig/publications_files/93genetic%20conflicts%20in%20human%20pregnancy.pdf |year=1993 |volume=68 |issue=4 |pages=495–532 |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology |doi=10.1086/418300 |s2cid=38641716 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719154120/http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/haig/publications_files/93genetic%20conflicts%20in%20human%20pregnancy.pdf |archive-date=2013-07-19 }}</ref>

==Happiness index==
[[File:Sinatra family 1949.jpg|thumb|Sinatra family 1949]]
In Europe, parents are generally happier than non-parents. In women, happiness increases after the first child, but having higher-order children is not associated with further increased well-being. Happiness seems to increase most in the year before and after the first childbirth.<ref name=balbo2013>{{cite journal|title=Fertility in Advanced Societies: A Review of Research|author1=Nicoletta Balbo |author2=Francesco C. Billari |author3=Melinda Mills |journal=European Journal of Population|year=2013|volume=29|issue=1|pages=1–38|doi=10.1007/s10680-012-9277-y|pmid=23440941 |pmc=3576563}}</ref>

==See also==

{{columns-list|colwidth=18em|
* [[Adoption]]
* [[Bateman's principle]]
* [[Child abuse]]
* [[Cinderella effect]]
* [[Egg donation|Egg]] and [[sperm donation]]
* [[Foster care]]
* [[Infant]]
* [[Narcissistic parent]]
* [[Non-paternity event]]
* [[Parental abuse by children]]
* [[Parental age (disambiguation)]]
* [[Parental bullying of children]]
* [[Parental controls]]
* [[Parental investment]]
* [[Parental love]]
* [[Parental narcissistic abuse]]
* [[Parents bullying teachers]]
* [[Paternal bond]]
* [[Paternity (law)]]
* [[Reciprocal socialization]]
* [[Stepparent]]
* [[Surrogate mother]]
* [[Teachers bullying parents]]
* [[Honour thy father and thy mother]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Parents}}
{{wiktionary|parent}}
* [http://www.neni.us National Educational Network, Inc. (NENI)] – free online resources for parent education, curriculum. They also have a parent blog with information about child care, after-school, trends in education, tutoring, college, grants, etc.
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Parents}} – A [[Roman Catholic]] view of the position of parents.

{{Family}}
{{Parenting}}
{{Infants and their care}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Family]]
[[Category:Motherhood]]
[[Category:Fatherhood]]
[[Category:Infancy]]
[[Category:Parenting| ]]
[[Category:Positions of authority]]

Persian language

2025-11-08T03:33:49Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Western Iranian language}} {{Redirect|Farsi|other uses|Farsi (disambiguation)}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}} {{Infobox language | name = Persian | altname = | nativename = {{lang|fa|فارسی}} {{Transliteration|fa|fārsī}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|fa|fɒːɾˈsiː||Farsi.ogg}} | states = {{hlist|style=line-height:1.3em; | Iran<ref name="Samadi">{{cite book |last=Sa..."

{{Short description|Western Iranian language}}
{{Redirect|Farsi|other uses|Farsi (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Persian
| altname =
| nativename = {{lang|fa|فارسی}} {{Transliteration|fa|fārsī}}
| pronunciation = {{IPA|fa|fɒːɾˈsiː||Farsi.ogg}}
| states = {{hlist|style=line-height:1.3em;
| [[Iran]]<ref name="Samadi">{{cite book |last=Samadi |first=Habibeh |title=Assessing Grammar: The Languages of Lars |year=2012 |publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=978-1-84769-637-3 |author2=Nick Perkins |editor=Martin Ball |editor2=David Crystal |editor3=Paul Fletcher |page=169}}</ref>
| [[Afghanistan]]<ref name="Samadi"/> (as [[Dari]])
| [[Tajikistan]]<ref name="Samadi"/> (as [[Tajik language|Tajik]])
| [[Uzbekistan]] (as Tajik)<ref name="auto">{{cite journal |first=Richard |last=Foltz |title=The Tajiks of Uzbekistan |journal=Central Asian Survey |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=213–216 |year=1996 |doi=10.1080/02634939608400946|issn = 0263-4937 }}</ref>
| [[Iraq]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |title=IRAQ |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iraq |access-date=7 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-date=17 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141117111515/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iraq}}</ref>
| [[Turkmenistan]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic Peoples of the Soviet Union |last=Akiner |first=Shirin |publisher=Routledge |year=1986 |isbn=0-7103-0188-X |location=London |pages=362}}</ref>
| [[Azerbaijan]] (as [[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tat]])<ref name="Windfuhr417418">Windfuhr, Gernot: ''The Iranian Languages'', Routledge 2009, p. 417–418.</ref>
| Russia ([[Dagestan]]; as Tat)<ref name="Windfuhr417418" />
| [[Kuwait]]<ref name="unesco">{{cite web|url=https://en.wal.unesco.org/languages/kuwaiti-persian|title=Kuwaiti Persian|work=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=27 October 2023|archive-date=29 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029173237/https://en.wal.unesco.org/languages/kuwaiti-persian|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| [[Bahrain]]<ref name="worldatlas">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-languages-are-spoken-in-bahrain.html|title=What Languages Are Spoken in Bahrain?|work=WorldAtlas|access-date=24 September 2025}}</ref>}}
| speakers = [[First language|L1]]: {{sigfig|91.154770|2}} million
| date = 2023–2024
| ref = <ref name="e28|fas">{{e28|fas}}</ref>
| speakers2 = [[second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|35.485140|2}} million (2020–2023)<ref name="e28|fas">{{e28|fas}}</ref> Total: {{sigfig|126.639910|3}} million (2020–2024)<ref name="e28|fas">{{e28|fas}}</ref>
| speakers_label = Speakers
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| fam3 = [[Iranian languages|Iranian]]
| fam4 = [[Western Iranian languages|Western]]
| fam5 = [[Southwestern Iranian languages|Southwestern]]
| ancestor = [[Old Persian]]
| ancestor2 = [[Middle Persian]]
| ancestor3 = [[New Persian#Early New Persian|Early New Persian]]
| dia1 = [[Iranian Persian|Iranian (Western)]]
| dia2 = [[Dari|Dari (Eastern)]]
| dia3 = [[Tajik language|Tajik]]
| dia4 = [[Bukharian (Judeo-Persian dialect)|Bukhori]]
| dia5 = [[Pahlavani language|Pahlavani]]
| dia6 = [[Hazaragi dialect|Hazaragi]]
| dia7 = [[Aimaq dialect|Aimaq]]
| dia8 = [[Judeo-Persian]]
| dia9 = [[Dehwari language|Dehwari]]
| dia10 = [[Judeo-Tat]]<ref name="Windfuhr418">Windfuhr, Gernot: ''The Iranian Languages'', Routledge 2009, p. 418.</ref>
| dia11 = [[Tat language (Caucasus)|Caucasian Tat]]<ref name="Windfuhr418"/>
| dia12 = [[Armeno-Tats|Armeno-Tat]]<ref name="Windfuhr418"/>
| dia13 = [[Madaklashti dialect|Madaklashti]]
| stand1 = [[Iranian Persian]]
| stand2 = [[Dari|Afghan Persian]]
| stand3 = [[Tajik language|Tajik Persian]]
| script = {{plainlist}}
* [[Persian alphabet]] in [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]]
* [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] ([[Tajik alphabet]]) in [[Tajikistan]]
* [[Old Persian cuneiform]] (525 BC – 330 BC)
* [[Pahlavi scripts]] (2nd century BC to 7th century AD)
* [[Persian Braille]]
{{endplainlist}}
| nation = {{plainlist}}
* [[Iran]]<ref name="Iran Constitution">[[Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran]]: Chapter II, Article 15: "The official language and script of Iran, the [[lingua franca]] of its people, is Persian. Official documents, correspondence, and texts, as well as text-books, must be in this language and script. However, the use of regional and tribal languages in the press and mass media, as well as for teaching of their literature in schools, is allowed in addition to Persian."</ref>
* [[Afghanistan]] (as [[Dari]])
* [[Tajikistan]] (as [[Tajik language|Tajik]])
{{endplainlist}}
Russia
* [[Dagestan]] (as [[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tat]])<ref>[[Constitution of the Republic of Dagestan]]: Chapter I, Article 11: "The state languages of the Republic of Dagestan are Russian and the languages of the peoples of Dagestan."</ref>
| agency = {{plainlist}}
* [[Academy of Persian Language and Literature]] (Iran)
* [[Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan]] (Afghanistan)
* [[Rudaki Institute of Language and Literature]] (Tajikistan)
{{endplainlist}}
| iso1 = fa
| iso2b = per
| iso2t = fas
| iso3 = fas
| lc1 = pes
| ld1 = [[Iranian Persian]]
| lc2 = prs
| ld2 = [[Dari]]
| lc3 = tgk
| ld3 = [[Tajik language]]
| lc4 = aiq
| ld4 = [[Aimaq dialect]]
| lc5 = bhh
| ld5 = [[Bukhori dialect]]
| lc7 = haz
| ld7 = [[Hazaragi dialect]]
| lc8 = jpr
| ld8 = [[Judeo-Persian]]
| lc9 = phv
| ld9 = [[Pahlavani language|Pahlavani]]
| lc10 = deh
| ld10 = [[Dehwari language|Dehwari]]
| lc11 = jdt
| ld11 = [[Judeo-Tat]]
| lc12 = ttt
| ld12 = [[Tat language (Caucasus)|Caucasian Tat]]
| lingua = {{longitem|58-AAC (Wider Persian) > 58-AAC-c (Central Persian)}}
| image = Farsi.svg
| imagescale = 0.45
| imagecaption = ''Fārsi'' written in [[Persian calligraphy]] ([[Nastaʿlīq]])
| map = Persian Language Location Map.svg{{!}}border
| mapcaption = Areas with significant numbers of people whose first language is Persian (including dialects)
| map2 = Map of Persian speakers.svg{{!}}border
| mapcaption2 = Persian linguasphere Legend
{{legend|#002255|Official language}}
{{legend|#0044AA|More than 1,000,000 speakers}}
{{legend|#0066FF|Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 speakers}}
{{legend|#5599FF|Between 100,000 and 500,000 speakers}}
{{legend|#AACCFF|Between 25,000 and 100,000 speakers}}
{{legend|#b9b9b9|Fewer than 25,000 speakers to none}}
| notice = IPA
| glotto = fars1254
| glottorefname = Farsic-Caucasian Tat
}}
{{Contains special characters|Perso-Arabic}}

'''Persian''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɜr|ʒ|ən|,_|-|ʃ|ən}} {{respell|PUR|zhən|,_|-|shən}}}} also known by its [[endonym and exonym|endonym]] '''Farsi''',{{efn|{{lang|fa|فارسی}}, Fārsī {{IPA|fa|fɒːɾˈsiː||Farsi.ogg}}; [[Early New Persian]]: {{lang|fa|پارسی}}, Pārsī}} is a [[Western Iranian languages|Western Iranian language]] belonging to the [[Iranian languages|Iranian branch]] of the [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian subdivision]] of the [[Indo-European languages]]. Persian is a [[pluricentric language]] predominantly spoken and used officially within [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]], and [[Tajikistan]] in three [[mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] [[standard language|standard varieties]], respectively [[Iranian Persian]] (officially known as ''Persian''),<ref>{{cite web |title=Persian, Iranian |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/pes |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220105062922/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/pes |archive-date=5 January 2022 |access-date=25 February 2021 |work=Ethnologue}}</ref><ref name="ISO">{{cite web |url=https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/fas |title=639 Identifier Documentation: fas |publisher=Sil.org |access-date=25 February 2021 |archive-date=16 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216202338/https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/fas |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran |url=https://en.parliran.ir/eng/en/Constitution |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161027004409/https://en.parliran.ir/eng/en/Constitution |archive-date=27 October 2016 |access-date=18 January 2022 |website=Islamic Parliament of Iran}}</ref> [[Dari|Dari Persian]] (officially known as ''Dari'' since 1964),<ref name="Olesen">{{cite book |first=Asta |last=Olesen |title=Islam and Politics in Afghanistan |volume=3 |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1995 |page=205 |quote=There began a general promotion of the Pashto language at the expense of Farsi – previously dominant in the educational and administrative system (...) – and the term 'Dari' for the Afghan version of Farsi came into common use, being officially adopted in 1958.}}</ref> and [[Tajik language|Tajiki Persian]] (officially known as ''Tajik'' since 1999).<ref name=siddikzoda2002>Siddikzoda, S. "Tajik Language: Farsi or not Farsi?" in ''Media Insight Central Asia #27'', August 2002.</ref><ref name="Baker">{{cite book |last=Baker |first=Mona |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ewBfSBo8rRsC |year=2001 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-25517-2 |page=518 |quote=All this affected translation activities in Persian, seriously undermining the international character of the language. The problem was compounded in modern times by several factors, among them the realignment of Central Asian Persian, renamed Tajiki by the Soviet Union, with Uzbek and Russian languages, as well as the emergence of a language reform movement in Iran which paid no attention to the consequences of its pronouncements and actions for the language as a whole. |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002103438/https://books.google.com/books?id=ewBfSBo8rRsC |url-status=live}}</ref> It is also spoken natively in the Tajik variety by a significant population within [[Uzbekistan]],<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Lena |last=Jonson |year=2006 |title=Tajikistan in the new Central Asia |page=108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Cordell |first=Karl |url=https://archive.org/details/ethnicitydemocra0000unse_y7f7 |title=Ethnicity and Democratisation in the New Europe |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=0415173124 |page=201 |quote=Consequently the number of citizens who regard themselves as Tajiks is difficult to determine. Tajiks within and outside of the republic, Samarkand State University (SamGU) academics and international commentators suggest that there may be between six and seven million Tajiks in Uzbekistan, constituting 30 per cent of the republic's twenty-two million population, rather than the official figure of 4.7 per cent (Foltz 1996:213; Carlisle 1995:88).}}</ref> as well as within other regions with a [[Persianate society|Persianate]] history in the cultural sphere of [[Greater Iran]]. It is written officially within Iran and Afghanistan in the [[Persian alphabet]], a derivative of the [[Arabic script]], and within Tajikistan in the [[Tajik alphabet]], a derivative of the [[Cyrillic script]].

Modern Persian is a continuation of [[Middle Persian]], an official language of the [[Sasanian Empire]] (224–651 CE), itself a continuation of [[Old Persian]], which was used in the [[Achaemenid Empire]] (550–330 BCE).<ref name="Lazard"/><ref>{{cite book |first1=Ulrich |last1=Ammon |first2=Norbert |last2=Dittmar |first3=Klaus J. |last3=Mattheier |first4=Peter |last4=Trudgill |title=Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society |volume=3 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2006 |edition=2nd |page=1912 |quote=The Pahlavi language (also known as Middle Persian) was the official language of Iran during the Sassanid dynasty (from 3rd to 7th century A. D.). Pahlavi is the direct continuation of old Persian, and was used as the written official language of the country. However, after the Moslem conquest and the collapse of the Sassanids, Arabic became the dominant language of the country and Pahlavi lost its importance, and was gradually replaced by Dari, a variety of Middle Persian, with considerable loan elements from Arabic and Parthian (Moshref 2001).}}</ref> It originated in the region of [[Fars province|Fars]] ([[Persis|Persia]]) in southwestern Iran.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Skjærvø |first=Prods Oktor |year=2006 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi-iranian-languages-and-scripts |volume=XIII |pages=344–377 |title=Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts |quote=(...) Persian, the language originally spoken in the province of Fārs, which is descended from Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenid empire (6th–4th centuries B.C.E.), and Middle Persian, the language of the Sasanian empire (3rd–7th centuries C.E.). |access-date=10 July 2019 |archive-date=23 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200423163002/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi-iranian-languages-and-scripts |url-status=live}}</ref> Its grammar is similar to that of many European languages.<ref name="Richard Davis 2006. pp. 602-603">{{cite encyclopedia |first=Richard |last=Davis |title=Persian |editor1-first=Josef W. |editor1-last=Meri |editor2-first=Jere L. |editor2-last=Bacharach |encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2006 |pages=602–603 |quote=Similarly, the core vocabulary of Persian continued to be derived from Pahlavi, but Arabic lexical items predominated for more abstract or abstruse subjects and often replaced their Persian equivalents in polite discourse. (...) The grammar of New Persian is similar to that of many contemporary European languages.}}</ref>

Throughout history, Persian was considered prestigious by various empires centered in [[West Asia]], [[Central Asia]], and [[South Asia]].<ref name="Persian literature">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Persian-literature |title=Persian literature |first=J.T.P. |last=de Bruijn |date=14 December 2015 |access-date=10 July 2019 |archive-date=10 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610213004/https://www.britannica.com/art/Persian-literature |url-status=live}}</ref> Old Persian is attested in [[Old Persian cuneiform]] on inscriptions from between the 6th and 4th century BC. Middle Persian is attested in [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]]-derived scripts ([[Pahlavi scripts|Pahlavi]] and [[Manichaean script|Manichaean]]) on [[Inscriptional Pahlavi|inscriptions]] and in [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] and [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]] scriptures from between the third to the tenth centuries (see [[Middle Persian literature]]). New Persian literature was first recorded in the ninth century, after the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]], since then adopting the Perso-Arabic script.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi2-documentation |title=Iran vi. Iranian languages and scripts (2) Documentation |first=Prods Oktor |last=Skjærvø |pages=348–366 |volume=XIII |access-date=30 December 2012 |archive-date=17 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117083610/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi2-documentation |url-status=live}}</ref>

Persian was the first language to break through the monopoly of [[Arabic]] on writing in the [[Muslim world]], with [[Persian literature|Persian poetry]] becoming a tradition in many eastern courts.<ref name="Persian literature"/> It was used officially as a language of bureaucracy even by non-native speakers, such as the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] in [[Anatolia]],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0dEYDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT146 |title=A History of the Muslim World since 1260: The Making of a Global Community |isbn=9781315511078 |last1=Egger |first1=Vernon O. |date=16 September 2016 |publisher=Routledge |access-date=12 June 2020 |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002103438/https://books.google.com/books?id=0dEYDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT146 |url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] in South Asia, and the [[Pashtuns]] in Afghanistan. It influenced languages spoken in neighboring regions and beyond, including other Iranian languages, the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], & [[Indo-Aryan languages]]. It also exerted some influence on Arabic,<ref name=Holes2001>{{cite book |last=Holes |first=Clive |title=Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJLjAKH7-rIC&pg=PR30 |year=2001 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=90-04-10763-0 |page=XXX |access-date=4 September 2013 |archive-date=17 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117170320/https://books.google.com/books?id=bJLjAKH7-rIC&pg=PR30 |url-status=live}}</ref> while borrowing a lot of vocabulary from it in the Middle Ages.<ref name="Lazard">{{harvnb|Lazard|1975}}: "The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Dari or Farsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Balochi, Pashto, etc., Old Persian, Middle Persian, and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran."</ref><ref name="Richard Davis 2006. pp. 602-603"/><ref name="Lazard, Gilbert 1971">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Lazard |first=Gilbert |title=Pahlavi, Pârsi, dari: Les langues d'Iran d'apès Ibn al-Muqaffa |editor-first=R.N. |editor-last=Frye |encyclopedia=Iran and Islam. In Memory of the late Vladimir Minorsky |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1971}}</ref><ref name="Nushin Namazi">{{cite web |url=http://cgi.stanford.edu/group/wais/cgi-bin/?p=24327 |title=Persian Loan Words in Arabic |first=Nushin |last=Namazi |date=24 November 2008 |access-date=1 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520151330/http://cgi.stanford.edu/group/wais/cgi-bin/?p=24327 |archive-date=20 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Classe 2000 1057">{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of literary translation into English |last=Classe |first=Olive |year=2000 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=1-884964-36-2 |page=1057 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C1uXah12nHgC&pg=PA1057 |quote=Since the Arab conquest of the country in 7th century AD, many loan words have entered the language (which from this time has been written with a slightly modified version of the Arabic scri

Iran

2025-11-08T03:32:23Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "Iran ranks 17th among countries by number of Internet users. Google Search is Iran's most widely used search engine and Instagram is the most popular online social networking service.<ref name="Alexa Internet">{{cite web |work=Alexa Internet |url=http://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/IR |title=Top Sites in Iran |access-date=2 December 2018 |archive-date=10 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/w..."

Iran ranks 17th among [[List of countries by number of Internet users|countries by number of Internet users]]. [[Google Search]] is Iran's most widely used search engine and [[Instagram]] is the most popular online [[social networking service]].<ref name="Alexa Internet">{{cite web |work=Alexa Internet |url=http://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/IR |title=Top Sites in Iran |access-date=2 December 2018 |archive-date=10 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101210145701/http://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/ir}}</ref> Direct access to many worldwide mainstream websites has been blocked in Iran, including [[Facebook]], which has been blocked since 2009. About 90% of Iran's [[e-commerce]] takes place on the Iranian online store [[Digikala]], which has around 750,000 visitors per day and is the most visited online store in the Middle East.<ref>{{cite news |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/may/31/amazon-iranian-style-digikala-other-startups-aparat-hamijoo-takhfifan |title=From Digikala to Hamijoo: the Iranian startup revolution, phase two |last=Kamali Dehghan |first=Saeed |date=13 May 2015 |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-date=12 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412095014/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/may/31/amazon-iranian-style-digikala-other-startups-aparat-hamijoo-takhfifan |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Iranian cuisine}}
[[File:Kebab Bakhtyari.jpg|thumb|[[Chelow kabab]] (rice and [[kebab]]), one of [[Iran's national dishes]]]]

Iranian main dishes include varieties of [[kebab]], [[pilaf]], [[stew]] ([[khoresh]]), [[soup]] and [[āsh]], and [[omelette]]. Lunch and dinner meals are commonly accompanied by side dishes such as plain [[yogurt]] or [[Tzatziki|mast-o-khiar]], [[Sabzi khordan|sabzi]], [[Shirazi salad|salad Shirazi]], and [[Tursu|torshi]], and might follow dishes such as [[borani]], [[Mirza Ghassemi|Mirza Qasemi]], or [[kashk e bademjan]]. In Iranian culture, tea is widely consumed.<ref>{{cite book |author=Williams, Stuart. |title=Iran – Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture |date=October 2008 |publisher=Kuperard |isbn=978-1-85733-598-9 |chapter=DRINKING |quote=Iranians are obsessive tea drinkers |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXYFAQAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Maslin, Jamie. |url=https://archive.org/details/iranianrapperspe0000masl |title=Iranian Rappers and Persian Porn: A Hitchhiker's Adventures in the New Iran |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing Inc. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60239-791-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/iranianrapperspe0000masl/page/58 58] |quote=Iran is a nation of obsessive tea drinkers |url-access=registration}}</ref> Iran is the world's seventh major tea producer.<ref name="FAOSTAT2">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations—Production [http://faostat.fao.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567&lang=en FAOSTAT] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115042315/http://faostat.fao.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567&lang=en |date=15 November 2011 }}. Retrieved 30 April 2010.</ref> One of Iran's most popular desserts is the [[Faloodeh|falude]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Foodspotting |title=The Foodspotting Field Guide |date=18 March 2014 |publisher=Chronicle Books |isbn=978-1-4521-3008-8 |chapter=24 / Dessert: Faloodeh |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PswWAgAAQBAJ}}</ref> There is also the popular saffron ice cream, known as ''[[Bastani Sonnati]]'' ("traditional ice cream"),<ref>{{cite web |author=Henninger, Danya |date=7 February 2017 |title=Franklin Fountain has an ImPeach sundae with 'nuts from the cabinet' |url=https://billypenn.com/2017/02/07/franklin-fountain-has-an-impeach-sundae-with-nuts-from-the-cabinet |website=BillyPenn.com |access-date=20 July 2017 |archive-date=19 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819144151/https://billypenn.com/2017/02/07/franklin-fountain-has-an-impeach-sundae-with-nuts-from-the-cabinet/ |url-status=live}}</ref> which is sometimes accompanied with [[carrot juice]].<ref>{{Cite book |author=Duguid, Naomi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v-GACwAAQBAJ |title=Taste of Persia: A Cook's Travels Through Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, and Kurdistan |date=6 September 2016 |publisher=Artisan |isbn=978-1-57965-727-7 |page=353 |quote=...{{nbsp}}havij bastani, a kind of ice cream float, made with Persian ice cream and carrot juice}}</ref> Iran is also famous for its [[caviar]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Sturgeon Stocks Slump |url=http://www.iran-daily.com/1383/2228/html/focus.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050716074736/http://www.iran-daily.com/1383/2228/html/focus.htm |archive-date=16 July 2005 |access-date=21 June 2013 |publisher=Iran-daily.com}}</ref>

Typical Iranian main dishes are combinations of [[rice]] with [[meat]], [[vegetable]]s and [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]]. [[List of culinary herbs and spices|Herbs]] are frequently used, along with fruits such as [[plum]]s, [[pomegranate]]s, [[quince]], [[prune]]s, [[apricot]]s and [[raisin]]s. Characteristic Iranian spices and flavourings such as [[saffron]], [[cardamom]], and [[dried lime]] and other sources of sour flavoring, [[cinnamon]], [[turmeric]] and [[parsley]] are mixed and used in various dishes.

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Iran}}
{{multiple image|
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width =
| image1 = Dizin ski resort.jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = [[Dizin]], biggest [[ski resort]] in the [[Middle East]]
| image2 = Azadi Stadium in the final week of the 39th League.jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 = [[Azadi Stadium]] in [[Tehran]], [[West Asia]]'s largest football stadium
}}

Iran is the birthplace of [[polo]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.polomuseum.com/history_of_polo.htm |title=The History of Polo |publisher=Polomuseum.com |access-date=27 March 2015 |archive-date=17 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717015002/http://www.polomuseum.com/history_of_polo.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/The-Origins-of-Polo/ |title=The origins and history of Polo |author=Ben Johnson |access-date=27 March 2015 |archive-date=28 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150228012509/http://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/The-Origins-of-Polo/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Iran Chamber Society: Sport in Iran: History of Chogân (Polo) |url=https://www.iranchamber.com/sport/chogan/chogan_history.php |access-date=26 May 2024 |website=Iran Chamber |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526112927/https://www.iranchamber.com/sport/chogan/chogan_history.php |url-status=live}}</ref> locally known as chogan, with its earliest records attributed to the ancient Medes.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Singh, Jaisal |year=2007 |title=Polo in India |location=London |publisher=New Holland |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZF5EIfX9VwC&pg=PA10 10] |isbn=978-1-84537-913-1}}</ref> Freestyle wrestling is traditionally considered the national sport, and [[Iran national freestyle wrestling athletes|Iran's wrestlers]] have been world champions many times. Iran's traditional wrestling, called ''[[Pahlevani and zoorkhaneh rituals|koڑti e pahlevāni]]'' ("heroic wrestling"), is registered on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zurkhaneh Traditional Sports |url=https://traditionalsportsgames.org/index.php/sport/35-traditional-sports-recognized/214-zurkhaneh |access-date=2 May 2024 |website= |archive-date=2 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240502163840/https://traditionalsportsgames.org/index.php/sport/35-traditional-sports-recognized/214-zurkhaneh |url-status=live}}</ref> Iran's [[National Olympic Committee of the Islamic Republic of Iran|National Olympic Committee]] was founded in 1947. Wrestlers and weightlifters have achieved the country's highest [[Iran at the Olympics|records at the Olympics]]. In 1974, Iran became the first country in West Asia to host the [[Asian Games]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Asian Games |url=https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1059784/history-of-asian-games |access-date=28 January 2024 |website= |archive-date=18 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118004949/https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1059784/history-of-asian-games |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Iranian Great Power Ambitions and China's Return to the Olympic Movement, 1973–74 |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/iranian-great-power-ambitions-and-chinas-return-to-the-olympic-movement-1973-74 |access-date=28 January 2024 |website= |date=31 October 2016 |language=en |archive-date=28 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240128122610/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/iranian-great-power-ambitions-and-chinas-return-to-the-olympic-movement-1973-74 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Teenagers won titles in the Tehran 1974 Asian Games where South Korea and Iran were the bests |url=http://www.asbcnews.org/teenagers-won-titles-in-the-tehran-1974-asian-games-where-south-korea-and-iran-were-the-bests/ |access-date=28 January 2024 |website= |language=en-US |archive-date=28 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240128122610/http://www.asbcnews.org/teenagers-won-titles-in-the-tehran-1974-asian-games-where-south-korea-and-iran-were-the-bests/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

As a mountainous country, Iran is a venue for skiing, snowboarding, hiking, rock climbing,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rockclimbing.com/ |title=Rock Climbing Routes, Gear, Photos, Videos & Articles |publisher=Rockclimbing.com |date=27 October 2009 |access-date=18 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615152628/http://www.rockclimbing.com/ |archive-date=15 June 2011}}</ref> and mountain climbing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mountainzone.ir/ |title=Iran Mountain Zone (IMZ) |date=11 June 1966 |access-date=18 June 2011 |archive-date=9 December 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021209175412/http://www.mountainzone.ir/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc-of-mountaineering.com/middle-east/iran/ |title=Mountaineering in Iran |publisher=Abc-of-mountaineering.com |access-date=18 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707072811/https://www.abc-of-mountaineering.com/middle-east/iran/ |archive-date=7 July 2011}}</ref> It is home to ski resorts, the most famous being [[Tochal Complex|Tochal]], [[Dizin]], and [[Shemshak (ski resort)|Shemshak]].<ref name="Snowseasoncentral.com_November_29_2015c">{{cite web |url=http://www.snowseasoncentral.com/work-a-winter-snow-season-iran |title=Iran – Guide to Skiing and Snowboarding |year=2015 |access-date=29 November 2015 |archive-date=8 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108113156/http://www.snowseasoncentral.com/work-a-winter-snow-season-iran |url-status=live}}</ref> Dizin is the largest, and authorised by [[International Ski and Snowboard Federation|FIS]] to administer international competitions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 December 2023 |title=Dizi (IRI) |url=https://www.fis-ski.com/DB/general/event-details.html?eventid=47908&sectorcode=AL&seasoncode=2021 |website=FIS |access-date=15 December 2023 |archive-date=15 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215183320/https://www.fis-ski.com/DB/general/event-details.html?eventid=47908&sectorcode=AL&seasoncode=2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Football in Iran|Football]] is the most popular sport, with the [[Iran national football team|men's national team]] having won the [[AFC Asian Cup|Asian Cup]] three times. The men's team ranks 2nd in Asia and 18th in the [[FIFA World Rankings]] {{as of|April 2025|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/fifa-world-ranking/associations/association/IRN/men/ |title=Iran: FIFA/Coca-Cola World Ranking |publisher=[[FIFA]] |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414135244/https://www.fifa.com/fifa-world-ranking/associations/association/IRN/men/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Azadi Stadium]] in Tehran is the largest association football stadium in West Asia and on a list of top-20 stadiums in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hayward |first=Joshua |title=Ranking the Top 20 Stadiums in World Football |url=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/1804430-ranking-the-top-20-stadiums-in-world-football |access-date=26 December 2023 |website=Bleacher Report |language=en |archive-date=29 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229064950/https://bleacherreport.com/articles/1804430-ranking-the-top-20-stadiums-in-world-football |url-status=live}}</ref> Volleyball is the second most popular sport.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aipsmedia.com/index.php?page=news&cod=16859&tp=n |title=AIPS Web Site – USA Volleyball president tips Iran to qualify for Rio |date=2 December 2011 |access-date=26 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015234936/http://www.aipsmedia.com/index.php?page=news&cod=16859&tp=n |archive-date=15 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldofvolley.com/News/Latest_news/170/volleyball-pioneer-ahmad-masajedi-says-irans-rise-to-the-top-wont-stop-.html |title=WorldofVolley :: Volleyball pioneer Ahmad Masajedi says Iran's rise to the top won't stop |date=2 December 2011 |access-date=26 October 2015 |archive-date=15 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015234934/http://www.worldofvolley.com/News/Latest_news/170/volleyball-pioneer-ahmad-masajedi-says-irans-rise-to-the-top-wont-stop-.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Having won the 2011 and 2013 [[Asian Men's Volleyball Championship]]s, the [[Iran men's national volleyball team|men's national team]] is the 2nd strongest in Asia, and 15th in the [[FIVB World Rankings]] {{as of|2025|January|lc=y}}. [[Basketball]] is also popular, with the [[Iran national basketball team|men's national team]] having won three [[FIBA Asia Championship|Asian Championships]] since 2007.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.espn.com/espnmag/story?id=3671265 |access-date=21 April 2012 |publisher=ESPN |first=Sam |last=Alipour |title=Mission Improbable |date=21 April 2012 |archive-date=24 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121124115828/http://sports.espn.go.com/espnmag/story?id=3671265 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Outline of Iran]]
* [[Transport in Iran]]

== Explanatory notes ==
<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" /><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"><references group="lower-alpha" /></div>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

=== ''Encyclopaedia Iranica'' ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Great Britain iii. British influence in Persia in the 19th century|year=2002|first=Abbas|last=Amanat|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/great-britain-iii/}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Anūštigin Ḡarčaʾī|year=1986|first=C. Edmund|last=Bosworth|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/anustigin-garcai-slave-commander}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Khwarazmshahs i. Descendants of the line of Anuštigin|year=2009|first=C. Edmund|last=Bosworth|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/khwarazmshahs-i}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica |last=Lawergren |first=Bo |author-link=Bo Lawergren |year=2009 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |title=Music History i. Pre-Islamic Iran |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/music-history-i-pre-islamic-iran |volume=online}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Aparna|year=2011|first=P.|last=Lecoq|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aparna-c3k}}
* {{Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=online|article=Economy iv. In the Sasanian Period|year=1997|first=Ryka|last=Gyselen|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/economy-iv/}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica |year=1998 |title=Ērān, Ērānšahr |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eran-eransah |last=MacKenzie |first=David Niel |volume=online}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Safavid Dynasty|author-link=Rudi Matthee | year=2008|first=Rudolph P.|last=Matthee|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Āgā Mohammad Khan Qājār|year=1984|first=J. R.|last=Perry|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aga-mohammad-khan/}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=online|title=Zand Dynasty|year=2000|first=J. R.|last=Perry|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zand-dynasty}}
* {{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|volume=online|fascicle=|article=Esmāʿīl I Ṣafawī|year=1998|first1=Roger|last1=Savory|first2=Ahmet T.|last2=Karamustafa|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/esmail-i-safawi#i}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Iranica |year=1987 |title=Aryans |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica |location=New York |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aryans |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |volume=online}}
*{{Encyclopaedia Iranica|title=Iraj |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iraj |last=Shahbazi |first=Alireza Shapour |date=2004 |volume=online}}
* {{Encyclopedia Iranica|volume=online|article=Sasanian Dynasty|year=2005|first=Alireza Shapur|last=Shahbazi|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty/}}
* {{Encyclopedia Iranica|volume=online|article=Nāder Shāh|year=2006a|first=Ernest|last=Tucker|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah}}
* {{Encyclopedia Iranica |year=2004 |title=Iran ii. Iranian History (1) Pre-Islamic Times |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii1-pre-islamic-times/ |last=Yarshater |first=Ehsan |volume=online }}
{{Refend}}

=== Books ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |author1=Aeschylus |author-link=Aeschylus |title=The Complete Aeschylus: Volume II: Persians and Other Plays |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-045183-7 |translator-last=Lembke |translator-first=Janet |chapter=Persians |access-date= |orig-year=1981 |translator-last2=Herington |translator-first2=C. John}}
* {{Cite book |last=Aghaie |first=Kamran Scot |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-973215-9 |chapter=The Afghan Interlude and the Zand and Afshar Dynasties (1722–95)}}
* {{Cite book |last=Aigle |first=Denise |title=Iran Under the Mongols: Ilkhanid Administrators and Persian Notables in Fars |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2024 |isbn=978-0-7556-4573-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Axworthy |first=Michael |title=A History of Iran: Empire of the Mind |publisher=Basic Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-465-09876-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Baker |first=Patricia L. |title=Iran: The Bradt Travel Guide |date=2005 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-84162-123-4 |orig-date=2001}}
* {{Cite book |last=Barthold |first=V. V. |title=Four Studies on the History of Central Asia: Volume III: Mir Ali-Shir: A Histoty of the Turkman People |publisher=Brill |year=1962 |chapter=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Blair |first=Sheila |title=The Monumental Inscriptions from Early Islamic Iran and Transoxiana |publisher=Brill |year=1992 |isbn=90-04-09367-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Brad |title=[[Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World|Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia]] |date=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-336-1 |editor-last=Mikaberidze |editor-first=Alexander |volume=1 |chapter=Ismail, Shah (Safavid) (1487–1524)}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dowling |first=Timothy C. |url= |title=Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-59884-948-6 |series=2 volumes}}
* {{cite book |last1=El-Azhari |first1=Taef |title=Queens, Eunuchs and Concubines in Islamic History, 661–1257 |date=2019 |pub

Shahbanu

2025-11-08T03:29:51Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Persian royal title}} {{italic title}} {{refimprove|date=February 2018}} Imperial arms of Shahbanu Farah of Iran 1972 portrait of [[Farah Pahlavi, describing her as Shahbanu Farah]] '''''Shahbanu''''' ({{langx|fa|شهبانو|Šahbānū}}, {{lit|lady king}}) was a title for empress regnant or empress consort..."

{{Short description|Persian royal title}}
{{italic title}}
{{refimprove|date=February 2018}}
[[File:Imperial Arms of the Shahbanou of Iran.svg|thumb|right|200px|Imperial arms of Shahbanu Farah of Iran]]
[[File:Portrait of Her Imperial Majesty, Shahbanu Farah.jpg|thumb|1972 portrait of [[Farah Pahlavi]], describing her as Shahbanu Farah]]
'''''Shahbanu''''' ({{langx|fa|شهبانو|Šahbānū}}, {{lit|lady king}}) was a title for [[empress regnant]] or [[empress consort]] in [[Persian language|Persian]] and other [[Iranian languages]]. The title was specifically used by [[Farah Pahlavi]], the wife of [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], the last [[Shah of Iran]] ([[Name of Iran|Persia]]).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzUbVqTIUo0C&dq=farah+diba+shahbanu&pg=PA104|title=Women and Politics in Iran: Veiling, Unveiling, and Reveiling|last=Sedghi|first=Hamideh|date=2007-07-09|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139463720|language=en}}</ref>

During [[Sassanid]] times, the principal queen was titled ''[[banbishnan banbishn]]'' ("Queen of Queens") analogous to the emperor's title ''[[shahanshah]]'' (lit. "King of Kings") to distinguish her from the other queens in the royal household.

Farah Pahlavi sometimes continues to be referred to as ''Shahbanu'', as is customarily done internationally for titleholders associated with [[abolished monarchy|abolished monarchies]], but the title is no longer valid in Iran. According to the [[Persian Constitution of 1906]], [[Yasmine Pahlavi]] would currently hold this title.

==See also==
{{Portal|Iran}}
* [[Shah]]
* [[List of royal consorts of Iran]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Queens consort of Persia]]
[[Category:Imperial titles]]
[[Category:Titles in Iran]]
[[Category:Persian words and phrases]]

Farah Pahlavi

2025-11-08T03:28:35Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Queen/Empress of Iran from 1959 to 1979}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}} {{Use Oxford spelling|date=February 2021}} {{Infobox royalty | consort = yes | name = Farah Pahlavi | image = Shahbanu of Iran.jpg | caption = Official portrait, {{circa|1973}} | succession = Queen/empress consort of Iran{{efn|The title of ''shahbanu'' (empress) was devised especially for Farah prior to her c..."

{{Short description|Queen/Empress of Iran from 1959 to 1979}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox royalty
| consort = yes
| name = Farah Pahlavi
| image = Shahbanu of Iran.jpg
| caption = Official portrait, {{circa|1973}}
| succession = [[List of royal consorts of Iran|Queen/empress consort of Iran]]{{efn|The title of ''[[shahbanu]]'' (empress) was devised especially for Farah prior to her coronation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=32Uu7SJMUYA|title=Shahbanou (Documentary)|publisher=Farah Pahlavi's Official YouTube Channel|date=25 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://farahpahlavi.org/queen-farah-pahlavi/|title=Queen Farah Pahlavi|work=farahpahlavi.org|access-date=27 January 2024}}</ref>}}
| reign1 = 21 December 1959 – {{nowrap|11 February 1979}}
| coronation2 = 26 October 1967
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]|1959|1980|reason=died}}
| issue = {{plainlist|
* [[Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran|Crown Prince Reza]]
* [[Farahnaz Pahlavi|Princess Farahnaz]]
* [[Ali Reza Pahlavi (born 1966)|Prince Ali Reza]]
* [[Leila Pahlavi|Princess Leila]]
}}
| house = [[Pahlavi dynasty|Pahlavi]] (by marriage)
| father = Sohrab Diba
| mother = [[Farideh Ghotbi]]
| birth_name = Farah Diba
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1938|10|14|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Tehran]], [[Pahlavi Iran|Imperial State of Iran]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pTVSPmyvtkAC&pg=PA44 |title=The Life and Times of the Shah|isbn=9780520942165|last1=Afkhami|first1=Gholam Reza|date=12 January 2009|publisher=University of California Press }}</ref>
| signature = [[File:Farah Pahlavi signature.svg|125px]] Persian signature
[[File:Latin signature of Farah Pahlavi.svg|150px]] Latin signature
}}
{{Iranian Imperial Family}}

'''Farah Pahlavi''' ({{langx|fa|فرح پهلوی}}; {{née|'''Diba'''}} [{{lang|fa|دیبا}}]; born 14 October 1938) is the former Queen and last Empress ({{langx|fa|شهبانو|[[Shahbanu|Shahbânu]]|label=none}}) of Iran and is the third wife and widow of the last [[List of monarchs of Iran|Shah of Iran]], [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]].

She was born into a prosperous Iranian family whose fortunes were diminished after her father's early death. While studying architecture in [[Paris]], she was introduced to the Shah at the [[List of diplomatic missions of Iran|Iranian embassy]], and they were married in December 1959. The Shah's first two marriages had not produced a son—necessary for [[Order of succession#Monarchies and nobility|royal succession]]—resulting in great rejoicing at the birth of [[Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran|Crown Prince Reza]] in October of the following year. As a philanthropist, she advanced the welfare of Iranian civil society through the establishment of charities, and founded Iran's [[Shiraz University]], Iran's first American-style university, increasing the number of women students. She also facilitated the recall of Iranian antiquities from museums abroad.

By 1978, growing [[Criticism of monarchy|anti-imperial]] unrest fueled by growing inequality between rich and poor throughout Iran was showing clear signs of [[Iranian Revolution|impending revolution]], prompting Farah and the Shah to leave the country in January 1979 under the threat of a death sentence. For that reason, most countries were reluctant to [[Right of asylum|harbour]] them, with [[Anwar Sadat]]'s Egypt being an exception. Facing execution should he return, and in ill health, Mohammad Reza died in [[exile]] in July 1980. While in exile, Farah has continued her charity work, dividing her time between Washington and Paris.

==Childhood==
[[File:Fpboyscout.jpg|thumb|Farah with [[Iran Scout Organization|Iranian Boy Scouts]] in Paris, ({{Circa|1956}})]]
Farah Diba was born on 14 October 1938 in [[Tehran]] to an upper-class family.<ref>{{cite book|title=The life and times of the Shah|url=https://archive.org/details/lifetimesshah00afkh|url-access=limited|first=Gholam Reza|last=Afkhami|page=[https://archive.org/details/lifetimesshah00afkh/page/n62 44]|isbn=978-0-520-25328-5|publisher=University of California Press|edition=1|date=12 January 2009}}</ref><ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|author=Shakibi, Zhand|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlptU4A2HkUC |title=Revolutions and the Collapse of Monarchy: Human Agency and the Making of Revolution in France, Russia, and Iran|publisher= I.B. Tauris|year=2007|isbn= 978-1-84511-292-9|page=90}}</ref><ref name="Taheri, Amir 1991. p. 160">Taheri, Amir. ''The Unknown Life of the Shah''. Hutchinson, 1991. {{ISBN|0-09-174860-7}}; p. 160</ref> She is the only child of Captain Sohrab Diba (1899–1948), an officer in the [[Imperial Iranian Armed Forces]] and a graduate of the [[École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr|French Military Academy of St. Cyr]], and his wife [[Farideh Ghotbi]] (1920–2000). In her memoir, Farah writes that her father's family were natives of [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Iranian Azerbaijan]] while her mother's family were of [[Gilaks|Gilak]] origin, from [[Lahijan]] on the Iranian coast of the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref name=enduring>Pahlavi, Farah. 'An Enduring Love: My life with The Shah. A Memoir' 2004</ref>

In the late 19th century, her grandfather had been a diplomat serving as the Persian Ambassador to the [[House of Romanov|Romanov]] Court in [[St. Petersburg]], Russia.<ref>{{cite book|first=Nooshin Saeidosadat|last=Manshadi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wqp4EAAAQBAJ&dq=Farah+Diba+ambassador+Russia&pg=PA125|title=Farewell My Queens: from Marie Antoinette to Farah Diba|isbn=9782382362716|publisher=Marjorie S. Maman|date=29 June 2022|pages=125}}</ref> She is moreover a relative of Iranian politician [[Abolhassan Diba]], Iranian architect [[Kamran Diba]], and Iranian-American curator [[Layla S. Diba|Layla Diba]].<ref>{{Cite web|author=[[Bob Colacello]]|url=https://www.interviewmagazine.com/culture/farah-pahlavi|title=Farah Pahlavi|date=1 August 2014|website=[[Interview (magazine)|Interview]]|language=en-US|access-date=23 June 2025}}</ref>

Farah wrote in her memoir that she had a close bond with her father, and his unexpected death in 1948 deeply affected her.<ref name=enduring/> The young family was in a difficult financial state. In their reduced circumstances, they were forced to move from their large family villa in northern [[Tehran]] into a shared apartment with one of Farideh Ghotbi's brothers.

==Education and engagement==
The young Farah Diba began her education at [[Pietro Della Valle Italian School|Tehran's Italian School]], then moved to the French [[Jeanne d’Arc School, Tehran|Jeanne d’Arc School]] until the age of sixteen and later to the [[Razi High School|Lycée Razi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.farahpahlavi.org/sports.html|title=Empress Farah Pahlavi Official Site - سایت رسمی‌ شهبانو فرح پهلوی|work=farahpahlavi.org|access-date=2 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120715005251/http://www.farahpahlavi.org/sports.html|archive-date=15 July 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> She was an athlete in her youth, becoming captain of her school's basketball team. Upon finishing her studies at the [[Razi High School|Lycée Razi]], she pursued an interest in architecture at the [[École Spéciale d'Architecture]] in Paris,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8NIwBwAAQBAJ&q=farah+diba+studied+architecture+at+the+Ecole+sp%C3%A9ciale+d'architecture&pg=PA93|title=Translation, History and Arts: New Horizons in Asian Interdisciplinary Humanities Research|last=Meng|first=J. I.|date=29 July 2013|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=9781443851176|language=en}}</ref> where she was a student of [[Albert Besson]].

Many Iranian students who were studying abroad at this time were dependent on State sponsorship. Therefore, when the [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Shah]], as head of state, made official visits to foreign countries, he frequently met with a selection of local Iranian students. It was during such a meeting, in 1959 at the Iranian Embassy in [[Paris]], that Farah Diba was first presented to Mohammed Reza Pahlavi.

After returning to Tehran in the summer of 1959, Mohammad Reza and Farah Diba began their courtship. The couple announced their engagement on 23 November 1959.

==Marriage and family==
Farah Diba married [[Mohammed Reza Pahlavi|Shah Mohammed Reza]] on 20 December 1959, aged 21. The young Queen of Iran (as she was [[Style (manner of address)|styled]] at the time) was the object of much curiosity and her wedding received worldwide press attention. Her gown was designed by [[Yves Saint Laurent (designer)|Yves Saint Laurent]], then a designer at the house of [[Dior]], and she wore the newly commissioned [[Noor-ol-Ain Diamond]] [[tiara]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gO9nBwAAQBAJ&q=farah+diba+noor-ol-ain+tiara&pg=PA176|title=World Clothing and Fashion: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Social Influence|last=Snodgrass|first=Mary Ellen|date=17 March 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317451679|language=en}}</ref>

After the pomp and celebrations associated with the imperial wedding, the success of this union depended on the birth of a male heir. Although he had been married twice before, the Shah's previous marriages had given him only a daughter who, under [[agnatic primogeniture]], could not inherit the throne. The pressure for Farah was acute. The shah himself was deeply anxious to have a male heir as were the members of his government.<ref name="ReferenceA">Pahlavi, Farah. 'An Enduring Love: My Life with The Shah. A Memoir', 2004.</ref> Furthermore, it was known that the dissolution of the Mohammad Reza's previous marriage to [[Soraya Esfandiary-Bakhtiary|Queen Soraya]] had been due to her infertility.<ref>"Queen of Iran Accepts Divorce As Sacrifice", ''[[The New York Times]]'', 15 March 1958, p. 4.</ref>

[[File:ShahanshahRoyalFamily2.jpg|thumb|right|Farah and Mohammad Reza with their four children, 1973]]

The couple had four children:

* Crown Prince [[Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran|Reza Pahlavi]] of Iran (born 31 October 1960). He and his wife [[Yasmine Pahlavi|Yasmine]] have three daughters.
** Princess Noor Pahlavi (born 3 April 1992)
** Princess Iman Pahlavi (born 12 September 1993)
** Princess Farah Pahlavi (born 17 January 2004)
* Princess [[Farahnaz Pahlavi]] of Iran (born 12 March 1963)
* Prince [[Ali Reza Pahlavi (born 1966)|Ali Reza Pahlavi]] of Iran (28 April 1966 – 4 January 2011). He and his companion Raha Didevar had one daughter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rezapahlavi.org/details_article.php?english&article=535|title=Announcement of Birth|publisher=Reza Pahlavi|access-date=5 August 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930111308/http://www.rezapahlavi.org/details_article.php?english&article=535|archive-date=30 September 2011}}</ref>
** Iryana Leila Pahlavi (born 26 July 2011)
* Princess [[Leila Pahlavi]] of Iran (27 March 1970 – 10 June 2001)

==As queen and empress==
{{multiple image
|align = right
|total_width = 230px
|perrow = 1/1
|image1 = Fpkermanshah.jpg
|caption1 = The Queen photographed while on a visit to [[Kermanshah]], Iran, 1963
|image2 = Fpkavir.jpg
|caption2 = The Empress during a visit to Kavir, Iran, 1974
}}

The exact role the new queen would play, in public or government affairs, was uncertain with her main role being simply to give the Shah a male heir.<ref name="auto">Zonis, Marvin ''Majestic Failure The Fall of the Shah'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991 page 138.</ref> Within the Imperial Household, her public function was secondary to the far more pressing matter of assuring the succession. However, after the birth of the Crown Prince, the Queen was free to devote more of her time to other activities and official pursuits.

Like many other royal consorts, Farah initially limited herself to a ceremonial role. In 1961 during a visit to France, the [[Francophile]] Farah befriended the French culture minister [[André Malraux]], leading her to arrange the exchange of cultural artifacts between French and Iranian art galleries and museums, a lively trade that continued until the Islamic revolution of 1979.<ref>Milani, Abbas ''The Shah'', London: Macmillan, 2011 page 279</ref> She spent much of her time attending the openings of various education and health-care institutions without venturing too deeply into controversial issues. However, as time progressed, this position changed. The Queen became much more actively involved in government affairs where it concerned issues and causes that interested her. She used her proximity and influence with her husband Mohammad Reza, to secure funding and focus attention on causes, particularly in the areas of women's rights and cultural development.<ref name="auto"/> Farah's concerns were the "realms of education, health, culture and social matters" with politics being excluded from her purview.<ref name="auto"/>

One of Farah's main initiatives was founding Pahlavi University (now [[Shiraz University]]), which was meant to improve the education of Iranian women, and was the first American-style university in Iran; before then, Iranian universities had always been modeled on the French style.<ref name="auto"/> The Empress wrote in 1978 that her duties were:

[[File:Empress Farah Office.jpg|thumb|left|The Empress photographed while working in her office in [[Tehran]], {{Circa|1970s}}]]

<blockquote>I could not write in detail of all the organizations over which I preside and in which I take a very active part, in the realms of education, health, culture and social matters. It would need a further book. A simple list would perhaps give some idea: the Organization for Family Well Being-nurseries for the children of working mothers, teaching women and girls to read, professional training, family planning; the Organization for Blood Transfusion; the Organization for the Fight Against Cancer; the Organization for Help to the Needy, the Health Organization ... the Children's Centre; the Centre for the Intellectual Development of Children ... the Imperial Institute of Philosophy; the Foundation for Iranian Culture; the Festival of Shiraz, the Tehran Cinema Festival; the Iranian Folklore Organization; the Asiatic Institute; the Civilisations Discussion Centre; the Pahlavi University; the Academy of Sciences.<ref name="auto"/></blockquote>

Farah worked long hours at her charitable activities, from about 9 am to 9 pm every weekday.<ref name="auto"/> Eventually, the Queen came to preside over a staff of 40 who handled various requests for assistance on a range of issues. She became one of the most highly visible figures in the Imperial Government and the patron of 24 educational, health and cultural organizations.<ref name="auto"/> Her humanitarian role earned her immense popularity for a time, particularly in the early 1970s.<ref name="Time">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,945049-2,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703000025/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,945049-2,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 July 2009| magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|title=The World: Farah: The Working Empress|date=4 November 1974}}</ref> During this period, she travelled a great deal within Iran, visiting some of the more remote parts of the country and meeting with the local citizens.

Farah's significance was exemplified by her part in the 1967 Coronation Ceremonies, where she was crowned as the first ''[[shahbanu]]'' (empress) of modern Iran. It was again confirmed when the Shah named her as the official [[regent]] should he die or be incapacitated before the Crown Prince's 21st birthday. The naming of a woman as regent was highly unusual for a Middle Eastern or Muslim monarchy.<ref name="Time"/> The great wealth generated by Iran's oil encouraged a sense of Iranian nationalism at the Imperial Court. The Empress recalled of her days as a university student in 1950s France about being asked where she was from:

<blockquote>When I told them Iran ... the Europeans would recoil in horror as if Iranians were barbarians and loathsome. But after Iran became wealthy under the Shah in the 1970s, Iranians were courted everywhere. Yes, Your Majesty. Of course, Your Majesty. If you please, Your Majesty. Fawning all over us. Greedy sycophants. Then they loved Iranians.<ref>Zonis, Marvin ''Majestic Failure The Fall of the Shah'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991 page 221.</ref></blockquote>

==Contributions to art and culture==
[[File:Fpresayeh.jpg|thumb|left|Farah visiting an orphanage in Iran, {{Circa|1968}}]]
From the beginning of her royal life, Farah took an active interest in promoting culture and the arts in Iran. Through her patronage, numerous organizations were created and fostered to further her ambition of bringing historical and contemporary Iranian Art to prominence both inside Iran and in the Western world.

[[File:SoadHosny-FarahPahlavi.jpg|thumb|Farah shaking hands with Egyptian actress [[Soad Hosny]] and Egyptian writer [[Youssef Francis]] in the [[Tehran International Film Festival]], 1973<ref>{{Cite web |title=Souad 'The Cinderella' Hosny's Most Loved Looks Throughout the Years |url=https://cairoscene.com/Styled/Souad-The-Cinderella-Hosny-s-Most-Loved-Looks-Throughout-the-Years |access-date=2025-07-22 |website=CairoScene}}</ref>]]
In addition to her own efforts, Farah sought to achieve this goal with the assistance of various foundations and advisers. Her ministry encouraged many forms of artistic expression, including traditional Iranian arts (such as weaving, singing, and poetry recital) as well as Western theatre. Her most recognized endeavour in supporting the performing arts was her patronage of the [[Shiraz Arts Festival]]. This occasionally controversial event was held annually from 1967 until 1977 and featured live performances by both Iranian and Western artists.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Shiraz Arts Festival: Western Avant-Garde Arts in 1970s Iran |journal=Leonardo |volume=40 |pages=20–28 |first=Robert |last=Gluck |doi=10.1162/leon.2007.40.1.20 |year=2007 |s2cid=57561105 }}</ref>

The majority of her time, however, went into the creation of museums and the building of their collections.

As a former architecture student, Farah's appreciation of it is demonstrated in the [[Niavaran Complex|Royal Palace of Niavaran]], designed by Mohsen Foroughi, and completed in 1968: it mixes traditional Iranian architecture with 1960's contemporary design. Nearby is the personal library of the Empress, consisting of 22,000 books, comprising principally works on Western and Eastern art, philosophy and religion; the interior was designed by Aziz Farmanfarmayan.

===Ancient art===
Historically a culturally rich country, the Iran of the 1960s had little to show for it. Many of the great artistic treasures produced during its 2,500-year history had found their way into the hands of foreign museums and private collections. It became one of Farah's principal goals to procure for Iran an appropriate collection of its own historic artifacts. To that end, she secured from her husband's government permission and funds to "buy back" a wide selection of Iranian artifacts from foreign and domestic collections. This was achieved with the help of the brothers Houshang and Mehdi Mahboubian, the most prominent Iranian antiquities dealers of the era, who advised the Empress from 1972 to 1978.<ref name="independent.co.uk">{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art-market-mysterious-gifts-from-the-east-who-is-the-man-who-has-collected-islams-finest-treasures-and-offered-them-to-britain-as-a-pounds-1bn-bequest-geraldine-norman-finds-out-1563284.html|work=The Independent|location=London|title=Mysterious gifts from the East| date=13 December 1

Benjamin Franklin

2025-11-08T03:27:08Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|American Founding Father and polymath (1706–1790)}}{{Other uses|Benjamin Franklin (disambiguation)}} {{Pp-semi-indef}} {{Pp-move}} {{Use American English|date=February 2019}} {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2024}} {{Infobox officeholder | name = Benjamin Franklin | honorific_suffix = {{Post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRS|FRSA|FRSE}} | image = Joseph Siffrein Duplessis - Benjamin Franklin - Google Art Project.jpg | ca..."

{{Short description|American Founding Father and polymath (1706–1790)}}{{Other uses|Benjamin Franklin (disambiguation)}}
{{Pp-semi-indef}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Benjamin Franklin
| honorific_suffix = {{Post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRS|FRSA|FRSE}}
| image = Joseph Siffrein Duplessis - Benjamin Franklin - Google Art Project.jpg
| caption = Portrait by [[Joseph Duplessis]], 1785
| office = 6th [[Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania#Presidents|President of Pennsylvania]]
| vicepresident = {{ubl|[[Charles Biddle]]|[[Peter Muhlenberg]]|[[David Redick]]}}
| term_start = October 18, 1785
| term_end = November 5, 1788
| predecessor = [[John Dickinson]]
| successor = [[Thomas Mifflin]]
| office1 = [[United States Minister to Sweden]]
| appointer1 = [[Congress of the Confederation]]
| term_start1 = September 28, 1782
| term_end1 = April 3, 1783
| predecessor1 = ''Position established''
| successor1 = [[Jonathan Russell]]
| office2 = [[United States Minister to France]]
| appointer2 = [[Continental Congress]]
| term_start2 = March 23, 1779
| term_end2 = May 17, 1785
| predecessor2 = ''Position established''
| successor2 = [[Thomas Jefferson]]
| order3 = 1st
| office3 = United States Postmaster General
| term_start3 = July 26, 1775
| term_end3 = November 7, 1776
| predecessor3 = ''Position established''
| successor3 = [[Richard Bache]]
| office4 = Delegate from [[Pennsylvania]] to the [[Second Continental Congress]]
| term_start4 = May 10, 1775
| term_end4 = October 26, 1776
| office5 = [[Postmaster General of British America]]
| term_start5 = August 10, 1753
| term_end5 = January 31, 1774
| predecessor5 = ''Position established''
| successor5 = ''Vacant''
| office6 = [[Speaker of the Pennsylvania Assembly|Speaker of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly]]
| term_start6 = May 26, 1764
| term_end6 = October 11, 1764
| predecessor6 = [[Isaac Norris (statesman)|Isaac Norris]]
| successor6 = Isaac Norris
| order8 = 1st
| office8 = President of the University of Pennsylvania
| term_start8 = November 13, 1749
| term_end8 = May 24, 1754
| successor8 = [[William Smith (Episcopal priest)|William Smith]]
| predecessor8 = ''Position established''
| office7 = Member of the [[Province_of_Pennsylvania#Government|Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly]] from [[Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania]]
| term_start7 = August 13, 1751
| term_end7 = October 11, 1764
| successor7 =
| predecessor7 =
| office11 = 21st Chief Clerk of the [[Province_of_Pennsylvania#Government|Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly]]
| term_start11 = October 14, 1736
| term_end11 = May 13, 1751
| successor11 = [[William Franklin]]
| predecessor11 = Joseph Growden Jr.
| office12 = President of the [[Pennsylvania_Abolition_Society|Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery and for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage]]
| term_start12 = April 23, 1787
| term_end12 = April 17, 1790
| successor12 =
| predecessor12 =
| birth_date = {{OldStyleDateDY|January 17,|1706|January 6}}{{refn|group=Note|name=birthdate}}
| birth_place = [[Boston]], Massachusetts Bay, British America
| death_date = {{death date and age|1790|4|17|1706|1|17}}
| death_place = [[Philadelphia]], Pennsylvania, U.S.
| resting_place = [[Christ Church Burial Ground]]
| party = [[Independent politician|Independent]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Deborah Read]]|September 1, 1730|1774|reason=died}}
| children = {{hlist|[[William Franklin|William]]|[[Francis Folger Franklin|Francis]]|[[Sarah Franklin Bache|Sarah]]}}
| parents = {{ubl|[[Josiah Franklin]]|[[Abiah Folger]]}}
| signature = Benjamin Franklin Signature.svg
| education = [[Boston Latin School]]
}}

'''Benjamin Franklin''' ({{OldStyleDateDY|January 17,|1706|January 6, 1705}}{{refn|group=Note|name=birthdate}}{{spaced ndash}}April 17, 1790) was an American [[polymath]]: a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher and [[Political philosophy|political philosopher]].<ref name="Britannica">[[#britannica|Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021]]</ref> Among the most influential intellectuals of his time, Franklin was one of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States]]; a [[Committee of Five|drafter]] and signer of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]]; and the first [[United States Postmaster General|postmaster general]].<ref name=Morris1973>{{cite book |last=Morris |first=Richard B. |author-link=Richard B. Morris |title=Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny: The Founding Fathers as Revolutionaries |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Row |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-06-090454-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/sevenwhoshapedou00morr/page/n15/mode/2up |pages=1, 5–30}}</ref>

Born in the [[Province of Massachusetts Bay]], Franklin became a successful [[Early American publishers and printers|newspaper editor and printer]] in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing ''[[The Pennsylvania Gazette]]'' at age 23.<ref>{{cite book |first=H.W. |last=Brands |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B2bPCEbMAvwC&pg=PA390 |title=The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin |year=2010 |page=390 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |isbn=978-0-307-75494-3 }}</ref> He became wealthy publishing this and ''[[Poor Richard's Almanack]]'', which he wrote under the pseudonym "Richard Saunders".<ref name="Goodrich1829">{{cite book|first=Charles A. |last=Goodrich|url=https://archive.org/details/livessignerstod02goodgoog|title=Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence|date=1829|publisher=W. Reed & Company|page=[https://archive.org/details/livessignerstod02goodgoog/page/n280 267]|access-date=June 7, 2013}}</ref> After 1767, he was associated with the ''[[Pennsylvania Chronicle]]'', a newspaper known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the policies of the [[Parliament of Great Britain|British Parliament]] and [[the Crown]].<ref name="Smithsonian+Constitutional Post">{{cite web|title=William Goddard and the Constitutional Post|url=https://postalmuseum.si.edu/exhibition/out-of-the-mails-hugh-finlays-journey/william-goddard%E2%80%99s-constitutional-post|access-date=October 19, 2010|publisher=[[Smithsonian National Postal Museum]]}}</ref> He pioneered and was the first president of the [[Academy and College of Philadelphia]], which opened in 1751 and later became the University of Pennsylvania. He organized and was the first secretary of the [[American Philosophical Society]] and was elected its president in 1769. He was appointed deputy postmaster-general for the British colonies in 1753,<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Benjamin Franklin, Postmaster General |website=United States Postal Service |url=https://about.usps.com/who-we-are/postal-history/pmg-franklin.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://about.usps.com/who-we-are/postal-history/pmg-franklin.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=May 29, 2021}}</ref> which enabled him to set up the first national communications network.

Franklin was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, as well as national and international affairs. He became a hero in America when, as an agent in London for several colonies, he spearheaded the repeal of the unpopular [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]] by the British Parliament. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired as the first [[List of ambassadors of the United States to France|U.S. ambassador to France]] and was a major figure in the development of positive [[France–United States relations|Franco{{ndash}}American relations]]. His efforts proved vital in securing French aid for the [[American Revolution]]. From 1785 to 1788, he served as [[Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania#Presidents|President of Pennsylvania]]. At some points in his life, he owned slaves and ran "for sale" ads for slaves in his newspaper, but by the late 1750s, he began arguing against [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]], became an active [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionist]], and promoted the education and [[Racial integration|integration]] of African Americans into U.S. society.<ref name="Nash pp. 618">[[#nash2006|Nash, 2006]], pp. 618–638.</ref>

As a scientist, Franklin's studies of electricity made him a major figure in the [[American Enlightenment]] and the [[history of physics]]. He also charted and named the [[Gulf Stream]] current. His numerous important inventions include the [[lightning rod]], [[bifocals]], [[glass harmonica]] and the [[Franklin stove]].<ref>[[#institute|Franklin Institute, Essay]]</ref> He founded many [[civic organization]]s, including the [[Library Company of Philadelphia|Library Company]], the [[University of Pennsylvania]],{{sfn|Isaacson|2003|p={{page needed|date=April 2025}}}} and [[Philadelphia]]'s first [[Union Fire Company|fire department]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Burt |first=Nathaniel |title=The Perennial Philadelphians: The Anatomy of an American Aristocracy |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8122-1693-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L9ueb6r1uXgC&pg=PA142 |page=142}}</ref>
Franklin earned the title of "The First American" for his early and indefatigable campaigning for [[Thirteen Colonies|colonial unity]]. He was the only person to sign the Declaration of Independence, the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] peace with Britain, and the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]]. Foundational in defining the American ethos, Franklin has been called "the most accomplished American of his age and the most influential in inventing the type of society America would become".{{sfn|Isaacson|2003|pp=491–492}}

Franklin's life and legacy of scientific and political achievement, and his status as one of America's most influential Founding Fathers, have seen him honored for more than two centuries after his death on the [[United States one-hundred-dollar bill|$100 bill]] and in the names of [[USS Franklin|warships]], [[List of places named for Benjamin Franklin|many towns and counties, educational institutions and corporations]], as well as in numerous [[Benjamin Franklin in popular culture|cultural references]] and a portrait in the [[Oval Office]]. His more than 30,000 letters and documents have been collected in ''[[The Papers of Benjamin Franklin]].'' [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot]] said of him: "Eripuit fulmen cœlo, mox sceptra tyrannis" ("He snatched lightning from the sky and the scepter from tyrants").<ref>{{cite web| title=To the Genius of Franklin| url=https://philamuseum.org/collection/object/50130| work=[[Philadelphia Museum of Art]]}}</ref>

==Ancestry==
Benjamin Franklin's father, [[Josiah Franklin]], was a [[tallow]] [[Chandlery|chandler]], [[soaper]], and [[candle]]maker. Josiah Franklin was born at [[Ecton, Northamptonshire]], England, on December 23, 1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith and farmer, and his wife, Jane White. Benjamin's father and all four of his grandparents were born in England.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Huang|first=Nian-Sheng|date=2000|title=Franklin's Father Josiah: Life of a Colonial Boston Tallow Chandler, 1657–1745|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1586007|journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society|volume=90|issue=3|pages=i–155|doi=10.2307/1586007|jstor=1586007|issn=0065-9746|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Josiah Franklin had a total of seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to [[Boston]] in 1683; they had three children before emigration and four after. Following her death, Josiah married [[Abiah Folger]] on July 9, 1689, in the [[Old South Meeting House]] by [[Samuel Willard|Reverend Samuel Willard]], and had ten children with her. Benjamin, their eighth child, was Josiah Franklin's fifteenth child overall, and his tenth and final son.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

Benjamin Franklin's mother, Abiah, was born in [[Nantucket]], [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]], on August 15, 1667, to [[Peter Folger (Nantucket settler)|Peter Folger]], a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, [[Mary Morrell Folger]], a former [[Indentured servitude|indentured servant]]. Mary Folger came from a Puritan family that was among the first [[Puritan migration to New England (1620–1640)|Pilgrims]] to flee to Massachusetts for [[Freedom of religion|religious freedom]], sailing for [[Boston]] in 1635 after King [[Charles I of England]] had begun persecuting Puritans. Her father Peter was "the sort of rebel destined to transform colonial America."{{sfn|Isaacson|2003|p=14}} As [[Court clerk|clerk of the court]], he was arrested on February 10, 1676, and jailed on February 19 for his inability to pay bail. He spent over a year and a half in jail.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nantucket lands and landowners |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/04017892/ |access-date=May 13, 2024 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
===Boston===
{{multiple image
| align = right
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| image1 = Benjamin Franklin Birthplace 2.JPG
| caption1 = An 1881 illustration of Franklin's birthplace on [[Milk Street, Boston|Milk Street]] in [[Boston]]
| image2 = Benjamin Franklin Birthplace.jpg
| caption2 = A May 2008 photograph of Franklin's birthplace in Boston, commemorated with a [[bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Franklin atop the building's second-floor façade
}}
Franklin was born on [[Milk Street, Boston|Milk Street]] in [[Boston]], [[Province of Massachusetts Bay]] on January 17, 1707,{{refn|group=Note|name=birthdate| Contemporary birth records which used the Julian calendar and the [[New Year#Annunciation Style|Annunciation Style]] of enumerating years, recorded his birth as January 6, 1706.<ref>Registry of Births within the Town of Boston N.E.1707 brought in and entered Anno 1708" [https://www.ancestry.com/sharing/43472019?mark=7b22746f6b656e223a2238576d6e487a5a376b34395765775068686f774b793744556e5977435669722f752b346571734357536f593d222c22746f6b656e5f76657273696f6e223a225632227d/ Ancestry database] image 60; Original Data Source, Town and City Clerks of Massachusetts. Massachusetts Vital and Town Records. Provo, UT: Holbrook Research Institute.</ref>{{sfn|Wood|2005|p=17}}}} and [[Infant baptism|baptized]] at the [[Old South Meeting House]] in Boston. As a child growing up along the [[Charles River]], Franklin recalled that he was "generally the leader among the boys."{{sfn|Isaacson|2003|p=16}}

Franklin's father wanted him to attend school with the clergy but only had enough money to send him to school for two years. He attended [[Boston Latin School]] but did not graduate; he continued his education through voracious reading. Although "his parents talked of the church as a career"<ref name="autobio">{{cite book |last= Franklin |first= Benjamin |title= Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qW4VAAAAYAAJ |access-date=February 1, 2011 |series= Macmillan's pocket English and American classics |orig-year= 1771 |year= 1901 |publisher=Macmillan |location= New York |page= vi |chapter= Introduction|isbn= 9780758302939 }}</ref> for Franklin, his schooling ended when he was ten. He worked for his father for a time, and at 12 he became an [[apprenticeship|apprentice]] to his brother James, a printer, who taught him the printing trade. When Benjamin was 15, James founded ''[[The New-England Courant]]'', which was the third newspaper founded in Boston.<ref name="Bernhard 2007 p. 11">{{cite book | last=Bernhard | first=J. | title=Porcupine, Picayune, & Post: How Newspapers Get Their Names | publisher=University of Missouri Press | series=EBL-Schweitzer | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-8262-6601-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_oO5fWi6dikC&pg=PA11 | access-date=June 1, 2023 | page=11}}</ref>

When denied the chance to write a letter to the paper for publication, Franklin adopted the pseudonym of "[[Silence Dogood]]", a middle-aged widow. Mrs. Dogood's letters were published and became a subject of conversation around town. Neither James nor the ''Courant''{{'s}} readers were aware of the ruse, and James was unhappy with Benjamin when he discovered the popular correspondent was his younger brother. Franklin was an advocate of free speech from an early age. When his brother was jailed for three weeks in 1722 for publishing material unflattering to [[Samuel Shute|the governor]], young Franklin took over the newspaper and had Mrs. Dogood proclaim, quoting ''[[Cato's Letters]]'', "Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech."{{sfn|Isaacson|2003|p=32}} Franklin left his apprenticeship without his brother's permission, and in so doing became a fugitive.<ref name="Seelye Selby 2018 p. 394">{{cite book | last1=Seelye | first1=J.E. | last2=Selby | first2=S. | title=Shaping North America: From Exploration to the American Revolution [3 volumes] | publisher=ABC-CLIO | year=2018 | isbn=978-1-4408-3669-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgVnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA394 | access-date=June 1, 2023 | page=394}}</ref>

===Moves to Philadelphia and London===
At age 17, Franklin ran away to [[Philadelphia]], seeking a new start in a new city. When he first arrived, he worked in several printing shops there, but he was not satisfied by the immediate prospects in any of these jobs. After a few months, while working in one printing house, Pennsylvania governor [[Sir William Keith, 4th Baronet|Sir William Keith]] convinced him to go to London, ostensibly to acquire the equipment necessary for establishing another newspaper in Philadelphia. Discovering that Keith's promises of backing a newspaper were empty, he worked as a [[Typesetting|typesetter]] in a printer's shop in what is today the Lady Chapel of [[St Bartholomew-the-Great|Church of St Bartholomew-the-Great]] in the [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]] area of London, which had at that time been deconsecrated. He returned to Philadelphia in 1726 with the help of [[Thomas Denham]], an English merchant who had emigrated but returned to England, and who employed Franklin as a clerk, shopkeeper, and bookkeeper in his business.<ref name="vandoren">[[Carl Van Doren|Carl]] Van Doren, ''Benjamin Franklin''. (1945). pages 252–253</ref>

===Junto and library===
[[File:Franklin - ita, 1825 - 766672 R (cropped).jpeg|thumb|''La scuola della economia e della morale'', an 1825 sketch of Franklin]]

In 1727, at age 21, Franklin formed the [[Junto (club)|Junto]], a group of "like minded aspiring artisans and tradesmen who hoped to improve themselves while they improved their community." The Junto was a discussion group for issues of the day; it subsequently gave rise to many organizations in Philadelphia.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mumford | first1 = Michael D. | s2cid = 143550175 | year = 2002 | title = Social innovation: ten cases from Benjamin Franklin | journal = Creativity Resel

Vermeer

2025-11-08T03:23:27Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Dutch painter (1632–1675)}} {{Redirect|Vermeer}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}} {{Infobox artist | name = Johannes Vermeer | image = Cropped version of Jan Vermeer van Delft 002.jpg | caption = Detail of the painting ''The Procuress'' ({{circa|1656}}), believed to be a self-portrait by Vermeer<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.essentialvermeer.com/lost_vermeer_self_portrait_baron_rol..."

{{Short description|Dutch painter (1632–1675)}}
{{Redirect|Vermeer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox artist
| name = Johannes Vermeer
| image = Cropped version of Jan Vermeer van Delft 002.jpg
| caption = Detail of the painting ''[[The Procuress (Vermeer)|The Procuress]]'' ({{circa|1656}}), believed to be a [[self-portrait]] by Vermeer<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.essentialvermeer.com/lost_vermeer_self_portrait_baron_rolin/procuress_self-portrait.html |author-first=Jon |author-last=Boone |title=The Procuress: Evidence for a Vermeer Self-Portrait |access-date=13 September 2010 |work=Essential Vermeer |archive-date=3 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503202933/http://www.essentialvermeer.com/lost_vermeer_self_portrait_baron_rolin/procuress_self-portrait.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| birth_date = [[Baptism|baptised]] 31 October 1632
| birth_place = [[Delft]], [[County of Holland]], [[Dutch Republic]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1675|12|15|1632|10|31|df=yes}}
| death_place = Delft, County of Holland, Dutch Republic
| field = Painting
| spouse = [[Catharina Bolnes]]
| movement = [[Dutch Golden Age painting|Dutch Golden Age]] [[Baroque painting|Baroque]]
| works = [[List of paintings by Johannes Vermeer|34 works universally attributed]]<ref name="Janson">{{cite web |author-first=Jonathan |author-last=Janson |url=http://www.essentialvermeer.com/vermeer_painting_part_one.html |work=Essential Vermeer |title=Complete Vermeer Catalogue & Tracker |access-date=16 June 2010}}</ref>
| signature = Vermeer autograph.svg
}}

'''Johannes Vermeer''' ({{IPAc-en|v|ər|ˈ|m|ɪər|,_|v|ər|ˈ|m|ɛər}} {{respell|vər|MEER|,_|vər|MAIR}}, {{IPA|nl|joːˈɦɑnəs fərˈmeːr|lang}}; [[#Pronunciation of name|see below]]; also known as '''Jan Vermeer'''; October 1632 – 15 December 1675) was a [[Dutch people|Dutch]] painter who specialized in domestic interior scenes of [[middle-class]] life. He is considered one of the greatest [[Dutch Golden Age painting|painters of the Dutch Golden Age]]. During his lifetime, he was a moderately successful provincial [[Genre art|genre painter]], recognized in [[Delft]] and [[The Hague]]. He produced relatively few paintings, primarily earning his living as an art dealer. He was not wealthy; at his death, his wife was left in debt.<ref name="Bulfinch"/>

Vermeer worked slowly and with great care, and frequently used very expensive [[pigments]]. He is particularly renowned for making masterful use of light in his work.<ref name="Wadum"/> "Almost all his paintings", [[Hans Koning]]sberger wrote, "are apparently set in two smallish rooms in his house in Delft; they show the same furniture and decorations in various arrangements and they often portray the same people, mostly women."<ref>{{Cite book |author-last=Koningsberger |author-first=Hans |date=1977 |title=The World of Vermeer |location=New York, USA |publisher=Time-Life Books |oclc=755281576}}</ref>

The modest celebrity he enjoyed during his life gave way to obscurity after his death. He was barely mentioned in [[Arnold Houbraken]]'s major source book on 17th-century Dutch painting (''Grand Theatre of Dutch Painters and Women Artists'', published 1718) and, as a result, was omitted from subsequent surveys of Dutch art for nearly two centuries.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A_1Ady0GAuUC&pg=PA199 |author-last1=Barker |author-first1=Emma |title=The Changing Status of the Artist|page=199 |publisher=New Haven: Yale University Press |date=1999 |isbn=0-300-07740-8 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>{{Efn|Vermeer was largely unknown to the general public, but his reputation was not totally eclipsed after his death: "While it is true that he did not achieve widespread fame until the 19th century, his work had always been valued and admired by well-informed connoisseurs."<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |author-last=Blankert |author-first=Albert |title=Vermeer and his Public |encyclopedia=Vermeer |editor-last1=Blankert |editor-first1=Albert |editor-last2=Montias |editor-first2=John Michael |editor-last3=Aillaud |editor-first3=Gilles |page=164 |location=New York, USA |publisher=Overlook |date=2007 |isbn=978-1-58567-979-9}}</ref>}} In the 19th century, Vermeer was rediscovered by [[Gustav Friedrich Waagen]] and [[Théophile Thoré-Bürger]], who published an essay attributing 66 works to him, although only 34 paintings are universally attributed to him today.<ref name="Janson">{{cite web |author-first=Jonathan |author-last=Janson |url=http://www.essentialvermeer.com/vermeer_painting_part_one.html |work=Essential Vermeer |title=Complete Vermeer Catalogue & Tracker |access-date=16 June 2010}}</ref> Since that time, Vermeer's reputation has grown enormously.

==Pronunciation of name==
In [[Dutch language|Dutch]], ''Vermeer'' is pronounced {{IPA|nl|vərˈmeːr|}}, and ''Johannes Vermeer'' as {{IPA|nl|joːˈɦɑnəs Vərˈmeːr|}}, with {{IPA|/v/}} [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilating]] to the preceding voiceless {{IPA|/s/}} as {{IPA|[f]}}. The usual English pronunciation is {{IPAc-en|v|ər|ˈ|m|ɪər}} {{respell|vər|MEER}}, with {{IPAc-en|v|ɜːr|ˈ|m|ɪər}} {{respell|vur|MEER}}, with a long first vowel, occurring in the UK.<ref name="epd">{{cite EPD|18}}</ref><ref name="lpd">{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite DPCE|2}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|v|ər|ˈ|m|ɛər}} {{respell|vər|MAIR}} is also documented.<ref name="epd"/><ref name="lpd"/><ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster |Vermeer |access-date=6 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite American Heritage Dictionary|Vermeer|access-date=6 August 2019}}</ref> Another pronunciation, {{IPAc-en|v|ɛər|ˈ|m|ɪər}} {{respell|vair|MEER}}, is attested from the UK.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/vermeer |title=Vermeer |work=[[Collins English Dictionary]] |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |access-date=6 August 2019}}</ref>

==Life==
[[File:Antique map of Delft, Netherlands by Blaeu J. 1649.jpg|thumb|Delft in 1649, by cartographer [[Willem Blaeu]]]]
[[File:Jesuite Kerk, Abraham Rademaker, SA Delft, inv.nr. 5691.tif|thumb|''The Jesuit Church on the Oude Langendijk in Delft'', {{Circa|1730}}, brush in gray ink, by [[Abraham Rademaker]], coll. Stadsarchief Delft]]

Relatively little was known about Vermeer's life until recently.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.essentialvermeer.com/vermeer_the_man.html |author-first=Jonathan |author-last=Janson |title=Vermeer the Man and Painter |work=Essential Vermeer |access-date=10 April 2014}}</ref> He seems to have been devoted exclusively to his art, living out his life in the city of Delft. Until the 19th century, the only sources of information were a few registers, official documents, and comments by other artists; for this reason, Thoré-Bürger named him "The Sphinx of Delft".<ref name="Delft"/> [[John Michael Montias]] added details on the family from the city archives of Delft in his ''Artists and Artisans in Delft: A Socio-Economic Study of the Seventeenth Century'' (1982).

===Youth and heritage===
Johannes Vermeer was [[Baptism|baptized]] within the [[Calvinism|Reformed Church]] on 31 October 1632.<ref name="Name"/><ref name="Tree"/>{{efn|Vermeer was baptized as Joannis.<ref name="Montias 3"/><ref name="Name"/> Jan was the most popular version of the name among Calvinists. Joannis was a Latinazied form of Jan, which was preferred by Roman Catholics and upper-middle class Protestants.<ref name="Montias 3">{{Harvnb|Montias|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-f1ZDwAAQBAJ 64–65]}}</ref><ref name="Name"/> However, Vermeer was born into a lower-middle class family.<ref name="essentialvermeer.com"/><ref name="The art History">{{cite web |url=https://www.theartstory.org/artist/vermeer-johannes/life-and-legacy/#biography_header |title=Johannes Vermeer |website=The Art Story |access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref> Still, according to Montias, it is unlikely that his parents were Catholics "at this time [the time of Vermeer's baptism]," seeing that they "baptized him in the established church."<ref name="Montias 3"/> Throughout his life, Vermeer never used the name Jan. Nevertheless, "most Dutch authors, in the century since his rediscovery, have dubbed him Jan, perhaps unconsciously to bring him closer to the mainstream of Calvinist culture."<ref name="Montias 3"/><ref name=Name/>}} His mother, Digna Baltens ({{Circa|1596}}–1670),<ref name="essentialvermeer.com2">{{cite web |url=http://www.essentialvermeer.com/family_tree.html |author-first=Jonathan |author-last=Janson |title=Vermeer's Family Tree |work=Essential Vermeer |access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref>{{efn|His mother was born in Antwerp. When she married Vermeer's father in 1615, she claimed to be twenty years old, but she may have "exaggerated her age by a year or so."<ref name="Montias Princeton">{{Harvnb|Montias|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-f1ZDwAAQBAJ 17]}}</ref> Digna's parents were married in Antwerp in 1596.}} was from [[Antwerp]].<ref name="essentialvermeer.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.essentialvermeer.com/vermeer's_life.html#parents |author-first=Jonathan |author-last=Janson |title=Vermeer's Life and Art (part one) |work=Essential Vermeer |access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> Digna's father, Balthasar Geerts, or Gerrits (born in Antwerp in or around 1573), led an enterprising life in metalworking, and was arrested for counterfeiting.{{sfn|Montias|1989|p=17–34}}<ref name="essentialvermeer.com"/> Vermeer's father, named Reijnier Janszoon, was a middle-class worker of silk or caffa (a mixture of silk and cotton or wool).{{Efn|His name was Reijnier or Reynier Janszoon, always written in Dutch as Jansz. or Jansz; this was his [[patronym]]. As there was another Reijnier Jansz at that time in Delft, it seemed necessary to use the pseudonym "Vos", meaning Fox. From 1640 onward, he had changed his alias to Vermeer.}} He was the son of Jan Reyersz and Cornelia (Neeltge) Goris.{{efn|Neeltge remarried three times, the second time shortly after Jan's death, in October 1597.{{Sfn|Montias|1989|p=35–55}}}} As an apprentice in Amsterdam, Reijnier lived on fashionable [[Sint Antoniesbreestraat]], a street with many resident painters at the time. In 1615, Reijnier married Digna. The couple moved to Delft and had a daughter named Gertruy who was baptized in 1620.{{efn|In 1647 Geertruy, Vermeer's only sister, married a frame maker. She kept on working at the inn helping her parents, serving drinks and making beds.}} In 1625, Reijnier was involved in a fight with a soldier named Willem van Bylandt who died from his wounds five months later.{{Sfn|Montias|1989|p=83}} Around this time, Reijnier began dealing in paintings. In 1631, he leased an inn, which he called "The Flying Fox". In 1635, he lived on Voldersgracht 25 or 26. In 1641, he bought a larger inn on the market square, named after the Flemish town "[[Mechelen]]". The acquisition of the inn constituted a considerable financial burden.{{Sfn|Huerta|2003|p=42}} When Reijnier died in October 1652, Vermeer took over the operation of the family's art business.

===Marriage and family===
In April 1653, Johannes Reijniersz Vermeer married a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] woman, [[Catharina Bolnes]] (Bolenes).<ref name="Liedtke_359"/> The blessing took place in the quiet nearby village of [[Schipluiden]].<ref name="Schneider-2000">{{Cite book |author-last=Schneider |author-first=Norbert |title=Vermeer: The Complete Paintings |publisher=Taschen |date=2000 |pages=8, 13}}</ref> Vermeer's new mother-in-law, [[Maria Thins]], was initially opposed to the marriage as she was significantly wealthier than he, and it was probably she who insisted that Vermeer convert to Catholicism before the marriage on 5 April.{{efn|Catholicism was not a forbidden religion, but tolerated in the [[Dutch Republic]]. They were not allowed to build new churches, so services were held in hidden churches (so-called [[Schuilkerk]]). Catholics were restrained in their careers, unable to get high-rank jobs in city administration or civic guard. It was impossible to be elected as a member of the city council; therefore, the Catholics were not represented in the provincial and national assembly.}} The fact that Vermeer's father was in considerable debt also did not help in discussions on the marriage. [[Leonaert Bramer]], who was Catholic himself, put in a good word for Vermeer and it was this that led Maria to drop her oppositions.<ref name="Schneider-2000"/> According to art historian [[Walter Liedtke]], Vermeer's conversion seems to have been made with conviction.<ref name="Liedtke_359">{{cite book |author-last1=Liedtke |author-first1=Walter |author-last2=Plomp |author-first2=Michiel C. |author-last3=Rüger |author-first3=Axel |author-link1=Walter Liedtke |title=Vermeer and the Delft school: [catalogue ... in conjunction with the exhibition "Vermeer and the Delft School" held at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, from 8 March to 27 May 2001, and at The National Gallery, London, from 20 June to 16 September 2001] |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_EZxWaNlQKiYC|date=2001|publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=0-87099-973-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_EZxWaNlQKiYC/page/n373 359]}}</ref> His painting ''[[The Allegory of Faith]]'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/32.100.18 |title=Johannes Vermeer: Allegory of the Catholic Faith (32.100.18) |work=The Met |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |date=20 July 2012 |access-date=24 July 2012}}</ref> made between 1670 and 1672, placed less emphasis on the artists' usual naturalistic concerns and more on symbolic religious applications, including the sacrament of the [[Eucharist]]. Walter Liedtke, in ''Dutch Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art'', suggests that it was made for a learned and devout Catholic patron, perhaps for his ''[[schuilkerk]]'', or "hidden church".{{Sfn|Liedtke|2007|p=893}} At some point, the couple moved in with Catharina's mother, who lived in a rather spacious house at Oude Langendijk, almost next to a hidden [[Jesuit]] church.{{efn|A Roman Catholic chapel now exists at this spot.}} There Vermeer lived for the rest of his life, producing paintings in the front room on the second floor. His wife gave birth to 15 children, four of whom were buried before being baptized but were registered as "child of Johan Vermeer".{{Sfn|Montias|1991|pp=344–345}} The names of 10 of Vermeer's children are known from wills written by relatives: Maertge, Elisabeth, Cornelia, Aleydis, Beatrix, Johannes, Gertruyd, Franciscus, Catharina, and Ignatius.{{Sfn|Montias|1991|pp=370–371}} Most of these names are those of [[saint]]s; the youngest (Ignatius) was likely named after the [[Ignatius of Loyola]].{{efn|The parish registers of the Delft Catholic church do not exist anymore, so it is impossible to prove but likely that his children were baptized in a hidden church.}}{{efn|The number of children seems inconsistent, but 11 was stated by his widow in a document to get help from the city council. One child died after this document was written.}}

===Career===
[[File:2010-05-15-delft-by-RalfR-13.jpg|thumb|Replica of the St. Luke Guildhouse on Voldersgracht in Delft]]
It is unclear where and with whom Vermeer apprenticed as a painter. There is some speculation that [[Carel Fabritius]] may have been his teacher, based upon a controversial interpretation of a text written in 1668 by printer Arnold Bon. Art historians have found no hard evidence to support this.{{Sfn|Montias|1991|p=104}} Local authority Leonaert Bramer acted as a friend, but his style of painting is rather different from Vermeer's.<ref name="Gallery"/> Liedtke suggests that Vermeer taught himself using information from one of his father's connections.{{Sfn|Liedtke|2007|p=886}} Some scholars think that Vermeer was trained under Catholic painter [[Abraham Bloemaert]]. Vermeer's style is similar to that of some of the [[Utrecht Caravaggists]], whose works are depicted as paintings-within-paintings in the backgrounds of several of his compositions.{{efn|Identifiable works include compositions by Utrecht painters [[Dirck van Baburen|Baburen]] and [[Caesar van Everdingen|Everdingen]].}}

[[File:Delftsedonderslag.jpg|thumb|left|''A View of Delft after the Explosion of 1654'', by [[Egbert van der Poel]]]]
On 29 December 1653, Vermeer became a member of the [[Guild of Saint Luke#Dutch Republic|Guild of Saint Luke]], a trade association for painters. The guild's records make clear that Vermeer did not pay the usual admission fee. It was a year of [[Bubonic plague|plague]], [[First Anglo-Dutch War|war]], and economic crisis; Vermeer was not alone in experiencing difficult financial circumstances. In 1654, a terrible explosion, known as the [[Delft#Explosion|Delft Thunderclap]], occurred at a gunpowder store and destroyed a large section of the city.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.essentialvermeer.com/maps/delft/delft_in_vermeer's_time.html |author-last=Janson |author-first=Jonathan |title=Delft in Johannes Vermeer's Time |work=Essential Vermeer |access-date=29 September 2009}}</ref> [[Pieter van Ruijven]] and his wife, [[Maria de Knuijt]], were Vermeer's patrons for the better part of the artist's career. In 2023, Maria de Knuijt was identified by the curators of the 2023 exhibition of Vermeer's works at the [[Rijksmuseum]] in Amsterdam as the main patron because of her long-standing and supportive relationship with the artist.<ref name="Bailey">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2023/02/07/revealed-vermeers-patron-was-in-fact-a-womanand-she-bought-half-the-artists-entire-oeuvre |title=Revealed: Vermeer's patron was, in fact, a woman—and she bought half the artist's entire oeuvre |author-first=Martin |author-last=Bailey |date=7 February 2023 |magazine=[[The Art Newspaper]] |access-date=26 April 2023}}</ref> It seems that Vermeer turned for inspiration to the art of the [[fijnschilder]]s from Leiden. Vermeer was responding to the market of [[Gerard Dou]]'s paintings, who sold his paintings for exorbitant prices. Dou may have influenced [[Pieter de Hooch]] and [[Gabriel Metsu]] too. Vermeer also charged higher than average prices for his work, most of which were purchased by an unknown collector.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The age of Rembrandt and Vermeer: Dutch painting in the seventeenth century |author-last=Nash| author-first=John Malcolm |publisher=Holt, Rinehart, and Winston |date=1972 |isbn=978-0-03-091870-4 |location=New York, USA |page=[https://archive.org/details/ageofrembrandt00nash/page/40 40] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofrembrandt00nash/page/40}}</ref>

[[File:Vermeer-view-of-delft.jpg|thumb|''[[View of Delft]]'' (1660–1661): "He took a turbulent reality, and made it look like Heaven on earth."<ref>{{cite episode |author-link=Andrew Graham-Dixon |author-first=Andrew |author-last=Graham-Dixon |title=The Madness of Vermeer |series=Secret Lives of the Artists |network=BBC Four |date=2002}}</ref>]]

The influence of Johannes Vermeer on Metsu is unmistakable: the light from the left, the marble floor.<ref>{{cite thesis |author-first=Adriaan E. |author-last=Waiboer |title=Gabriel Metsu (1629–1667): Life and Work |type=PhD |publisher=New York University |date=2007 |pages=225–230}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.codart.com/522/ |title=Curator in the spotlight: Adriaan E. Waiboer, National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin |work=Codart |access-date=12 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913010858/http://www.codart.com/522/ |archive-date=13 September 2014}}</ref><ref name=

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Categorical data

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ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{More footnotes needed|date=July 2024}}{{Short description|Variable capable of taking on a limited number of possible values}} In statistics, a '''categorical variable''' (also called '''qualitative variable''') is a variable that can take on one of a limited, and usually fixed, number of possible values, assigning each individual or other unit of observation to a particular group or nominal category on the basis of some qualitative pro..."

{{More footnotes needed|date=July 2024}}{{Short description|Variable capable of taking on a limited number of possible values}}
In [[statistics]], a '''categorical variable''' (also called '''qualitative variable''') is a [[variable (research)|variable]] that can take on one of a limited, and usually fixed, number of possible values, assigning each individual or other unit of observation to a particular group or [[nominal category]] on the basis of some [[qualitative property]].<ref name="yates">{{cite book | last1 = Yates | first1 = Daniel S. | last2 = Moore | first2 = David S. | last3 = Starnes | first3 = Daren S. | year = 2003 | title = The Practice of Statistics | edition = 2nd | publisher = [[W. H. Freeman and Company|Freeman]] | location = New York | url = http://bcs.whfreeman.com/yates2e/ | isbn = 978-0-7167-4773-4 | access-date = 2014-09-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050209001108/http://bcs.whfreeman.com/yates2e/ | archive-date = 2005-02-09 | url-status = dead }}</ref> In computer science and some branches of mathematics, categorical variables are referred to as [[enumerations]] or [[enumerated types]]. Commonly (though not in this article), each of the possible values of a categorical variable is referred to as a '''level'''. The [[probability distribution]] associated with a [[random variable|random]] categorical variable is called a [[categorical distribution]].

'''Categorical data''' is the [[statistical data type]] consisting of categorical variables or of data that has been converted into that form, for example as [[grouped data]]. More specifically, categorical data may derive from observations made of [[qualitative data]] that are summarised as counts or [[cross tabulation]]s, or from observations of [[quantitative data]] grouped within given intervals. Often, purely categorical data are summarised in the form of a [[contingency table]]. However, particularly when considering data analysis, it is common to use the term "categorical data" to apply to data sets that, while containing some categorical variables, may also contain non-categorical variables. [[Ordinal data|Ordinal variables]] have a meaningful ordering, while [[Nominal variable|nominal variables]] have no meaningful ordering.

A categorical variable that can take on exactly two values is termed a ''[[binary variable]]'' or a '''dichotomous variable'''; an important special case is the [[Bernoulli variable]]. Categorical variables with more than two possible values are called '''polytomous variables'''; categorical variables are often assumed to be polytomous unless otherwise specified. [[Discretization]] is treating [[continuous function|continuous data]] as if it were categorical. [[Dichotomization]] is treating continuous data or polytomous variables as if they were binary variables. [[Regression analysis]] often treats category membership with one or more quantitative [[dummy variable (statistics)|dummy variables]].

==Examples of categorical variables==
Examples of values that might be represented in a categorical variable:
*Demographic information of a population: gender, disease status.
*The [[blood type]] of a person: A, B, AB or O.
*The [[political party]] that a voter might vote for, e.{{nnbsp}}g. ''Green Party'', ''Christian Democrat'', ''Social Democrat'', etc.
*The type of a rock: [[igneous]], [[sedimentary]] or [[Metamorphic rock|metamorphic]].
*The identity of a particular word (e.g., in a [[language model]]): One of ''V'' possible choices, for a vocabulary of size ''V''.

==Notation==
For ease in statistical processing, categorical variables may be assigned numeric indices, e.g. 1 through ''K'' for a ''K''-way categorical variable (i.e. a variable that can express exactly ''K'' possible values). In general, however, the numbers are arbitrary, and have no significance beyond simply providing a convenient label for a particular value. In other words, the values in a categorical variable exist on a [[nominal scale]]: they each represent a logically separate concept, cannot necessarily be meaningfully [[Level of measurement#Ordinal scale|ordered]], and cannot be otherwise manipulated as numbers could be. Instead, valid operations are [[Equivalence relation|equivalence]], [[set membership]], and other set-related operations.

As a result, the [[central tendency]] of a set of categorical variables is given by its [[Mode (statistics)|mode]]; neither the [[Mean (statistics)|mean]] nor the [[Median (statistics)|median]] can be defined. As an example, given a set of people, we can consider the set of categorical variables corresponding to their last names. We can consider operations such as equivalence (whether two people have the same last name), set membership (whether a person has a name in a given list), counting (how many people have a given last name), or finding the mode (which name occurs most often). However, we cannot meaningfully compute the "sum" of Smith + Johnson, or ask whether Smith is "less than" or "greater than" Johnson. As a result, we cannot meaningfully ask what the "average name" (the mean) or the "middle-most name" (the median) is in a set of names.

This ignores the concept of [[alphabetical order]], which is a property that is not inherent in the names themselves, but in the way we construct the labels. For example, if we write the names in [[Cyrillic]] and consider the Cyrillic ordering of letters, we might get a different result of evaluating "Smith < Johnson" than if we write the names in the standard [[Latin alphabet]]; and if we write the names in [[Chinese characters]], we cannot meaningfully evaluate "Smith < Johnson" at all, because no consistent ordering is defined for such characters. However, if we do consider the names as written, e.g., in the Latin alphabet, and define an ordering corresponding to standard alphabetical order, then we have effectively converted them into [[ordinal variable]]s defined on an [[ordinal scale]].

==Number of possible values==
Categorical [[random variable]]s are normally described statistically by a [[categorical distribution]], which allows an arbitrary ''K''-way categorical variable to be expressed with separate probabilities specified for each of the ''K'' possible outcomes. Such multiple-category categorical variables are often analyzed using a [[multinomial distribution]], which counts the frequency of each possible combination of numbers of occurrences of the various categories. [[Regression analysis]] on categorical outcomes is accomplished through [[multinomial logistic regression]], [[multinomial probit]] or a related type of [[discrete choice]] model.

Categorical variables that have only two possible outcomes (e.g., "yes" vs. "no" or "success" vs. "failure") are known as ''binary variables'' (or ''Bernoulli variables''). Because of their importance, these variables are often considered a separate category, with a separate distribution (the [[Bernoulli distribution]]) and separate regression models ([[logistic regression]], [[probit regression]], etc.). As a result, the term "categorical variable" is often reserved for cases with 3 or more outcomes, sometimes termed a ''multi-way'' variable in opposition to a binary variable.

It is also possible to consider categorical variables where the number of categories is not fixed in advance. As an example, for a categorical variable describing a particular word, we might not know in advance the size of the vocabulary, and we would like to allow for the possibility of encountering words that we have not already seen. Standard statistical models, such as those involving the [[categorical distribution]] and [[multinomial logistic regression]], assume that the number of categories is known in advance, and changing the number of categories on the fly is tricky. In such cases, more advanced techniques must be used. An example is the [[Dirichlet process]], which falls in the realm of [[nonparametric statistics]]. In such a case, it is logically assumed that an infinite number of categories exist, but at any one time most of them (in fact, all but a finite number) have never been seen. All formulas are phrased in terms of the number of categories actually seen so far rather than the (infinite) total number of potential categories in existence, and methods are created for incremental updating of statistical distributions, including adding "new" categories.

==Categorical variables and regression==

Categorical variables represent a [[Qualitative data|qualitative]] method of scoring data (i.e. represents categories or group membership). These can be included as [[independent variable]]s in a [[regression analysis]] or as dependent variables in [[logistic regression]] or [[probit regression]], but must be converted to [[quantitative data]] in order to be able to analyze the data. One does so through the use of coding systems. Analyses are conducted such that only ''g'' -1 (''g'' being the number of groups) are coded. This minimizes redundancy while still representing the complete data set as no additional information would be gained from coding the total ''g'' groups: for example, when coding gender (where ''g'' = 2: male and female), if we only code females everyone left over would necessarily be males. In general, the group that one does not code for is the group of least interest.<ref name = Cohen>{{cite book|author1=Cohen, J. |author2=Cohen, P. |author3=West, S. G. |author4= Aiken, L. S.|author4-link= Leona S. Aiken |title=Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioural sciences (3rd ed.)|year=2003|publisher=Routledge|location=New York, NY}}</ref>

There are three main coding systems typically used in the analysis of categorical variables in regression: dummy coding, effects coding, and contrast coding. The regression equation takes the form of '''''Y = bX + a''''', where ''b'' is the slope and gives the weight empirically assigned to an explanator, ''X'' is the explanatory variable, and ''a'' is the [[Y-intercept|''Y''-intercept]], and these values take on different meanings based on the coding system used. The choice of coding system does not affect the ''[[F statistic|F]]'' or [[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient|''R''2]] statistics. However, one chooses a coding system based on the comparison of interest since the interpretation of ''b'' values will vary.<ref name = Cohen/>

===Dummy coding===

Dummy coding is used when there is a [[Control group|control]] or comparison group in mind. One is therefore analyzing the data of one group in relation to the comparison group: ''a'' represents the mean of the control group and ''b'' is the difference between the mean of the [[experimental group]] and the mean of the control group. It is suggested that three criteria be met for specifying a suitable control group: the group should be a well-established group (e.g. should not be an "other" category), there should be a logical reason for selecting this group as a comparison (e.g. the group is anticipated to score highest on the dependent variable), and finally, the group's sample size should be substantive and not small compared to the other groups.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hardy|first=Melissa|title=Regression with dummy variables|year=1993|publisher=Sage|location=Newbury Park, CA}}</ref>

In dummy coding, the reference group is assigned a value of 0 for each code variable, the group of interest for comparison to the reference group is assigned a value of 1 for its specified code variable, while all other groups are assigned 0 for that particular code variable.<ref name = Cohen/>

The ''b'' values should be interpreted such that the experimental group is being compared against the control group. Therefore, yielding a negative b value would entail the experimental group have scored less than the control group on the [[dependent variable]]. To illustrate this, suppose that we are measuring optimism among several nationalities and we have decided that French people would serve as a useful control. If we are comparing them against Italians, and we observe a negative ''b'' value, this would suggest Italians obtain lower optimism scores on average.

The following table is an example of dummy coding with ''French'' as the control group and C1, C2, and C3 respectively being the codes for ''Italian'', ''German'', and ''Other'' (neither French nor Italian nor German):

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''Nationality''' || '''C1''' || '''C2''' || '''C3'''
|-
| French || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
| Italian || 1|| 0 || 0
|-
| German || 0 || 1 || 0
|-
| Other || 0 || 0 || 1
|}

===Effects coding===

In the effects coding system, data are analyzed through comparing one group to all other groups. Unlike dummy coding, there is no control group. Rather, the comparison is being made at the mean of all groups combined (''a'' is now the [[grand mean]]). Therefore, one is not looking for data in relation to another group but rather, one is seeking data in relation to the grand mean.<ref name = Cohen/>

Effects coding can either be weighted or unweighted. Weighted effects coding is simply calculating a weighted grand mean, thus taking into account the sample size in each variable. This is most appropriate in situations where the sample is representative of the population in question. Unweighted effects coding is most appropriate in situations where differences in sample size are the result of incidental factors. The interpretation of ''b'' is different for each: in unweighted effects coding ''b'' is the difference between the mean of the experimental group and the grand mean, whereas in the weighted situation it is the mean of the experimental group minus the weighted grand mean.<ref name = Cohen/>

In effects coding, we code the group of interest with a 1, just as we would for dummy coding. The principal difference is that we code −1 for the group we are least interested in. Since we continue to use a ''g'' - 1 coding scheme, it is in fact the −1 coded group that will not produce data, hence the fact that we are least interested in that group. A code of 0 is assigned to all other groups.

The ''b'' values should be interpreted such that the experimental group is being compared against the mean of all groups combined (or weighted grand mean in the case of weighted effects coding). Therefore, yielding a negative ''b'' value would entail the coded group as having scored less than the mean of all groups on the dependent variable. Using our previous example of optimism scores among nationalities, if the group of interest is Italians, observing a negative ''b'' value suggest they obtain a lower optimism score.

The following table is an example of effects coding with ''Other'' as the group of least interest.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''Nationality''' || '''C1''' || '''C2''' || '''C3'''
|-
| French || 0 || 0 || 1
|-
| Italian || 1 || 0 || 0
|-
| German|| 0 || 1 || 0
|-
| Other || −1 || −1 || −1
|}

===Contrast coding===

The contrast coding system allows a researcher to directly ask specific questions. Rather than having the coding system dictate the comparison being made (i.e., against a control group as in dummy coding, or against all groups as in effects coding) one can design a unique comparison catering to one's specific research question. This tailored hypothesis is generally based on previous theory and/or research. The hypotheses proposed are generally as follows: first, there is the central hypothesis which postulates a large difference between two sets of groups; the second hypothesis suggests that within each set, the differences among the groups are small. Through its [[A priori (epistemology)|a priori]] focused hypotheses, contrast coding may yield an increase in [[Power (statistics)|power]] of the [[statistical test]] when compared with the less directed previous coding systems.<ref name = Cohen/>

Certain differences emerge when we compare our a priori coefficients between [[ANOVA]] and regression. Unlike when used in ANOVA, where it is at the researcher's discretion whether they choose coefficient values that are either [[Orthogonality|orthogonal]] or non-orthogonal, in regression, it is essential that the coefficient values assigned in contrast coding be orthogonal. Furthermore, in regression, coefficient values must be either in fractional or decimal form. They cannot take on interval values.

The construction of contrast codes is restricted by three rules:

# The sum of the contrast coefficients per each code variable must equal zero.
# The difference between the sum of the positive coefficients and the sum of the negative coefficients should equal 1.
# Coded variables should be orthogonal.<ref name = Cohen/>

Violating rule 2 produces accurate ''R''2 and ''F'' values, indicating that we would reach the same conclusions about whether or not there is a significant difference; however, we can no longer interpret the ''b'' values as a mean difference.

To illustrate the construction of contrast codes consider the following table. Coefficients were chosen to illustrate our a priori hypotheses: Hypothesis 1: French and Italian persons will score higher on optimism than Germans (French = +0.33, Italian = +0.33, German = −0.66). This is illustrated through assigning the same coefficient to the French and Italian categories and a different one to the Germans. The signs assigned indicate the direction of the relationship (hence giving Germans a negative sign is indicative of their lower hypothesized optimism scores). Hypothesis 2: French and Italians are expected to differ on their optimism scores (French = +0.50, Italian = −0.50, German = 0). Here, assigning a zero value to Germans demonstrates their non-inclusion in the analysis of this hypothesis. Again, the signs assigned are indicative of the proposed relationship.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''Nationality''' || '''C1''' || '''C2'''
|-
| French || +0.33 || +0.50
|-
| Italian || +0.33 || −0.50
|-
| German || −0.66 || 0
|}

===Nonsense coding===

Nonsense coding occurs when one uses arbitrary values in place of the designated "0"s "1"s and "-1"s seen in the previous coding systems. Although it produces correct mean values for the variables, the use of nonsense coding is not recommended as it will lead to uninterpretable statistical results.<ref name = Cohen />

===Embeddings===
''Embeddings'' are codings of categorical values into low-dimensional [[Real numbers|real-valued]] (sometimes [[Complex numbers|complex-valued]]) vector spaces, usually in such a way that ‘similar’ values are assigned ‘similar’ vectors, or with respect to some other kind of criterion making the vectors useful for the respective application. A common special case are [[word embedding]]s, where the possible values of the categorical variable are the [[word]]s in a [[language]] and words with similar meanings are to be assigned similar vectors.

===Interactions===

An [[Interaction (statistics)|interaction]] may arise when considering the relationship among three or more variables, and describes a situation in which the simultaneous influence of two variables on a third is not additive. Interactions may arise with categorical variables in two ways: either categorical by categorical variable interactions, or categorical by continuous variable interactions.

====Categorical by categorical variable interactions====

This type of interaction arises when we have two categorical variables. In order to probe this type of interaction, one would code using the system that addresses the researcher's hypothesis most appropriately. The product of the codes yields the interaction. One may then calculate the ''b'' value and determine whether the interaction is significant.<ref name = Cohen/>

====Categorical by continuous variable interactions====

Simple slopes analysis is a common [[post hoc test]] used in regression which is similar to the simple effects anal

Category (topology)

2025-11-07T14:53:49Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{For|the concept in set theory|Baire space (set theory)}} {{short description|Concept in topology}} In mathematics, a topological space <math>X</math> is said to be a '''Baire space''' if countable unions of closed sets with empty interior also have empty interior.{{sfn|Munkres|2000|p=295}} According to the Baire category theorem, compact Hausdorff spaces and complete metric spaces are examples of Baire spaces. The Bai..."

{{For|the concept in set theory|Baire space (set theory)}}
{{short description|Concept in topology}}
In [[mathematics]], a [[topological space]] <math>X</math> is said to be a '''Baire space''' if [[countable]] unions of [[closed set]]s with empty [[interior (topology)|interior]] also have empty interior.{{sfn|Munkres|2000|p=295}}
According to the [[Baire category theorem]], [[compact Hausdorff space]]s and [[complete metric space]]s are examples of Baire spaces.
The Baire category theorem combined with the properties of Baire spaces has numerous applications in [[topology]], [[geometry]], and [[analysis (mathematics)|analysis]], in particular [[functional analysis]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Your favourite application of the Baire Category Theorem |url=https://math.stackexchange.com/q/165696 |website=Mathematics Stack Exchange}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Classic applications of Baire category theorem |url=https://mathoverflow.net/questions/129666 |website=MathOverflow |language=en}}</ref> For more motivation and applications, see the article [[Baire category theorem]]. The current article focuses more on characterizations and basic properties of Baire spaces per se.

[[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki]] introduced the term "Baire space"{{sfn|Engelking|1989|loc=Historical notes, p. 199}}{{sfn|Bourbaki|1989|p=192}} in honor of [[René Baire]], who investigated the Baire category theorem in the context of [[Euclidean space]] <math>\R^n</math> in his 1899 thesis.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baire|first=R.|title=Sur les fonctions de variables réelles|journal=[[Annali di Matematica Pura ed Applicata]]|year=1899|volume=3|pages=1–123|doi=10.1007/BF02419243 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cS4LAAAAYAAJ|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

== Definition ==
[[File:Baire space definitions.svg|thumb|Equivalent definitions of a Baire space. Associated properties are painted in the same color. Left: definitions 1, 2, 6; right: definitions 5, 3, 4. (from top to bottom)]]

The definition that follows is based on the notions of a [[meagre set|meagre]] (or first category) set (namely, a set that is a countable union of sets whose closure has empty interior, i.e., [[nowhere dense set]]s) and a [[nonmeagre]] (or second category) set (namely, a set that is not meagre). See the corresponding article for details.

A topological space <math>X</math> is called a '''Baire space''' if it satisfies any of the following equivalent conditions:{{sfn|Munkres|2000|p=295}}{{sfn|Haworth|McCoy|1977|p=11}}{{sfn|Narici|Beckenstein|2011|pp=390-391}}

# Every countable intersection of [[dense (topology)|dense]] [[open set]]s is dense.
# Every countable union of closed sets with empty interior has empty interior.
# Every meagre set has empty interior.
# Every nonempty open set is nonmeagre.<ref group=note>As explained in the [[meagre set]] article, for an open set, being nonmeagre in the whole space is equivalent to being nonmeagre in itself.</ref>
# Every [[comeagre]] set is dense.
# Whenever a countable union of closed sets has an interior point, at least one of the closed sets has an interior point.

The equivalence between these definitions is based on the associated properties of complementary subsets of <math>X</math> (that is, of a set <math>A\subseteq X</math> and of its [[complement (set theory)|complement]] <math>X\setminus A</math>) as given in the table below.

{| class="wikitable"
!Property of a set || Property of complement
|-
|open || closed
|-
|comeagre || meagre
|-
|dense || has empty interior
|-
|has dense interior || nowhere dense
|}

The Baire space is kind of the qualitative version of the [[measure space]]. For example, the definition 6 above is analogous to the following fact for measure spaces: Whenever a countable union of sets has positive [[Measure (mathematics)|measure]], at least one of the sets has positive measure.
The advantage of the Baire category approach is that it works well in infinite dimensional cases, where the measure-theoretic approach runs into significant difficulties.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tao |first1=Terence |title=245B, Notes 9: The Baire category theorem and its Banach space consequences |url=https://terrytao.wordpress.com/2009/02/01/245b-notes-9-the-baire-category-theorem-and-its-banach-space-consequences/ |access-date=21 September 2025 |language=en |date=2 February 2009}}</ref>
The table below shows more ideas they share. However, they are not mathematically equivalent. There exist [[Meagre_set#Meagre_subsets_and_Lebesgue_measure|meagre sets that have positive Lebesgue measure]].

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Similar ideas between Baire spaces and measure spaces
|-
! Baire space (qualitative) !! [[measure space]] (quantitative)
|-
| meagre || zero measure
|-
| nonmeagre || positive measure
|-
| comeagre || full measure
|}

== Baire category theorem ==

{{main|Baire category theorem}}
The Baire category theorem gives sufficient conditions for a topological space to be a Baire space.

* ('''BCT1''') Every [[complete metric space|complete]] [[pseudometric space]] is a Baire space.{{sfn|Kelley|1975|loc=Theorem 34, p. 200}}{{sfn|Schechter|1996|loc=Theorem 20.16, p. 537}} In particular, every [[completely metrizable]] topological space is a Baire space.
* ('''BCT2''') Every [[locally compact regular]] space is a Baire space.{{sfn|Kelley|1975|loc=Theorem 34, p. 200}}{{sfn|Schechter|1996|loc=Theorem 20.18, p. 538}} In particular, every [[locally compact Hausdorff]] space is a Baire space.

'''BCT1''' shows that the following are Baire spaces:
* The space <math>\R</math> of [[real number]]s.
* The space of [[irrational number]]s, which is [[homeomorphic]] to the [[Baire space (set theory)|Baire space <math>\omega^{\omega}</math> of set theory]].
* Every [[Polish space]].

'''BCT2''' shows that the following are Baire spaces:
* Every compact Hausdorff space; for example, the [[Cantor set]] (or [[Cantor space]]).
* Every [[manifold]], even if it is not [[paracompact]] (hence not [[metrizable]]), like the [[long line (topology)|long line]].

One should note however that there are plenty of spaces that are Baire spaces without satisfying the conditions of the Baire category theorem, as shown in the Examples section below.

== Properties ==

* Every nonempty Baire space is nonmeagre. In terms of countable intersections of dense open sets, being a Baire space is equivalent to such intersections being dense, while being a nonmeagre space is equivalent to the weaker condition that such intersections are nonempty.
* Every open subspace of a Baire space is a Baire space.{{sfn|Haworth|McCoy|1977|loc=Proposition 1.14}}
* Every dense [[G-delta set|''G''δ set]] in a Baire space is a Baire space.{{sfn|Haworth|McCoy|1977|loc=Proposition 1.23}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ma |first1=Dan |title=A Question About The Rational Numbers |url=https://dantopology.wordpress.com/2012/06/02/a-question-about-the-rational-numbers/ |website=Dan Ma's Topology Blog |language=en |date=3 June 2012}}Theorem 3</ref> The result need not hold if the Gδ set is not dense. See the Examples section.
* Every comeagre set in a Baire space is a Baire space.{{sfn|Haworth|McCoy|1977|loc=Proposition 1.16}}
* A subset of a Baire space is comeagre if and only if it contains a dense Gδ set.{{sfn|Haworth|McCoy|1977|loc=Proposition 1.17}}
* A closed subspace of a Baire space need not be Baire. See the Examples section.
* If a space contains a dense subspace that is Baire, it is also a Baire space.{{sfn|Haworth|McCoy|1977|loc=Theorem 1.15}}
* A space that is locally Baire, in the sense that each point has a neighborhood that is a Baire space, is a Baire space.{{sfn|Narici|Beckenstein|2011|loc=Theorem 11.6.7, p. 391}}{{sfn|Haworth|McCoy|1977|loc=Corollary 1.22}}
* Every [[topological sum]] of Baire spaces is Baire.{{sfn|Haworth|McCoy|1977|loc=Proposition 1.20}}
* The product of two Baire spaces is not necessarily Baire.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oxtoby |first1=J. |title=Cartesian products of Baire spaces |journal=[[Fundamenta Mathematicae]] |date=1961 |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=157–166 |doi=10.4064/fm-49-2-157-166 |url=http://matwbn.icm.edu.pl/ksiazki/fm/fm49/fm49113.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fleissner |first1=W. |last2=Kunen |first2=K. |title=Barely Baire spaces |journal=Fundamenta Mathematicae |date=1978 |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=229–240 |doi=10.4064/fm-101-3-229-240 |url=http://matwbn.icm.edu.pl/ksiazki/fm/fm101/fm101121.pdf}}</ref>
* An arbitrary product of complete metric spaces is Baire.{{sfn|Bourbaki|1989|loc=Exercise 17, p. 254}}
* Every [[locally compact]] [[sober space]] is a Baire space.{{sfn|Gierz|Hofmann|Keimel|Lawson|2003|loc=Corollary I-3.40.9, p. 114}}
* Every finite topological space is a Baire space (because a finite space has only finitely many open sets and the intersection of two open dense sets is an open dense set<ref>{{cite web |title=Intersection of two open dense sets is dense |url=https://math.stackexchange.com/q/1143211 |website=Mathematics Stack Exchange}}</ref>).
* A [[topological vector space]] is a Baire space if and only if it is nonmeagre,{{sfn|Narici|Beckenstein|2011|loc=Theorem 11.8.6, p. 396}} which happens if and only if every closed balanced absorbing subset has non-empty interior.{{sfn|Wilansky|2013|p=60}}

Let <math>f_n : X \to Y</math> be a sequence of [[Continuous map (topology)|continuous]] functions with pointwise limit <math>f : X \to Y.</math> If <math>X</math> is a Baire space, then the points where <math>f</math> is not continuous is {{em|a [[meagre set]]}} in <math>X</math> and the set of points where <math>f</math> is continuous is dense in <math>X.</math> A special case of this is the [[uniform boundedness principle]].

== Examples ==
* The empty space is a Baire space. It is the only space that is both Baire and meagre.
* The space <math>\R</math> of [[real number]]s with the usual topology is a Baire space.
* The space <math>\Q</math> of [[rational number]]s (with the topology induced from <math>\R</math>) is not a Baire space, since it is meagre.
* The space of [[irrational number]]s (with the topology induced from <math>\R</math>) is a Baire space, since it is comeagre in <math>\R.</math>
* The space <math>X=[0,1]\cup([2,3]\cap\Q)</math> (with the topology induced from <math>\R</math>) is nonmeagre, but not Baire. There are several ways to see it is not Baire: for example because the subset <math>[0,1]</math> is comeagre but not dense; or because the nonempty subset <math>[2,3]\cap\Q</math> is open and meagre.
* Similarly, the space <math>X=\{1\}\cup([2,3]\cap\Q)</math> is not Baire. It is nonmeagre since <math>1</math> is an isolated point.

The following are examples of Baire spaces for which the Baire category theorem does not apply, because these spaces are not locally compact and not completely metrizable:
* The [[Sorgenfrey line]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Sorgenfrey line is a Baire Space |url=https://math.stackexchange.com/q/476821 |website=Mathematics Stack Exchange }}</ref>
* The [[Sorgenfrey plane]].<ref name="sorg-plane">{{cite web |title=The Sorgenfrey plane and the Niemytzki plane are Baire spaces |url=https://math.stackexchange.com/q/3848442 |website=Mathematics Stack Exchange }}</ref>
* The [[Niemytzki plane]].<ref name="sorg-plane"/>
* The subspace of <math>\R^2</math> consisting of the open upper half plane together with the rationals on the {{mvar|x}}-axis, namely, <math>X=(\R\times(0,\infty))\cup(\Q\times\{0\}),</math> is a Baire space,<ref>{{cite web |title=Example of a Baire metric space which is not completely metrizable |url=https://math.stackexchange.com/q/3003649 |website=Mathematics Stack Exchange }}</ref> because the open upper half plane is dense in <math>X</math> and completely metrizable, hence Baire. The space <math>X</math> is not locally compact and not completely metrizable. The set <math>\Q\times\{0\}</math> is closed in <math>X</math>, but is not a Baire space. Since in a metric space closed sets are [[G-delta set|''G''δ sets]], this also shows that in general Gδ sets in a Baire space need not be Baire.

[[Algebraic varieties]] with the [[Zariski topology]] are Baire spaces. An example is the affine space <math>\mathbb{A}^n</math> consisting of the set <math>\mathbb{C}^n</math> of {{mvar|n}}-tuples of complex numbers, together with the topology whose closed sets are the vanishing sets of polynomials <math>f \in \mathbb{C}[x_1,\ldots,x_n].</math>

==See also==

* {{annotated link|Banach–Mazur game}}
* {{annotated link|Barrelled space}}
* {{annotated link|Blumberg theorem}}
* {{annotated link|Choquet game}}
* {{annotated link|Property of Baire}}
* {{annotated link|Webbed space}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}
{{reflist}}

== References ==
* {{Bourbaki General Topology Part II Chapters 5-10}} 
* {{cite book|last=Engelking|first=Ryszard| author-link=Ryszard Engelking|title=General Topology|publisher=Heldermann Verlag, Berlin|year=1989| isbn=3-88538-006-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gierz |first1=G. |last2=Hofmann |first2=K. H. |last3=Keimel |first3=K. |last4=Lawson |first4=J. D. |last5=Mislove |first5=M. W. |last6=Scott |first6=D. S. |author6link = Dana Scott|title=Continuous Lattices and Domains |volume=93 |series=Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0521803380 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/continuouslattic0000unse }}
* {{Citation|last1=Haworth|first1=R. C.|last2=McCoy|first2=R. A.|title=Baire Spaces|location=Warszawa|publisher=Instytut Matematyczny Polskiej Akademi Nauk|year=1977|url=http://eudml.org/doc/268479}}
* {{Kelley General Topology}} 
* {{cite book|author-last=Munkres|author-first=James R.|author-link=James Munkres|title=Topology|date=2000|publisher=[[Prentice Hall|Prentice-Hall]]|isbn=0-13-181629-2}} 
* {{Narici Beckenstein Topological Vector Spaces|edition=2}} 
* {{Schechter Handbook of Analysis and Its Foundations}} 
* {{Wilansky Modern Methods in Topological Vector Spaces}} 

== External links ==

* [http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Baire_space Encyclopaedia of Mathematics article on Baire space]
* [http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Baire_theorem Encyclopaedia of Mathematics article on Baire theorem]

[[Category:General topology]]
[[Category:Functional analysis]]
[[Category:Properties of topological spaces]]

Category (mathematics)

2025-11-07T14:51:47Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Mathematical object that generalizes the standard notions of sets and functions}} {{Other uses|Category (disambiguation)#Mathematics}} g ∘ f}}, and the loops are the identity arrows. This category is typically denoted by a boldface '''3'''. In mathematics, a '''category''' (sometimes called an '''abstra..."

{{Short description|Mathematical object that generalizes the standard notions of sets and functions}}
{{Other uses|Category (disambiguation)#Mathematics}}

[[File:Category_SVG.svg|thumbnail|This is a category with a collection of objects A, B, C and collection of morphisms denoted f, g, {{nowrap|g ∘ f}}, and the loops are the identity arrows. This category is typically denoted by a boldface '''3'''.]]

In [[mathematics]], a '''category''' (sometimes called an '''abstract category''' to distinguish it from a [[concrete category]]) is a collection of "objects" that are linked by "arrows". A category has two basic properties: the ability to compose the arrows [[Associativity|associatively]] and the existence of an identity arrow for each object. A simple example is the [[category of sets]], whose objects are [[set (mathematics)|sets]] and whose arrows are [[function (mathematics)|functions]].

[[Category theory]] is a branch of mathematics that seeks to generalize all of mathematics in terms of categories, independent of what their objects and arrows represent. Virtually every branch of modern mathematics can be described in terms of categories, and doing so often reveals deep insights and similarities between seemingly different areas of mathematics. As such, category theory provides an alternative foundation for mathematics to [[set theory]] and other proposed axiomatic foundations. In general, the objects and arrows may be abstract entities of any kind, and the notion of category provides a fundamental and abstract way to describe mathematical entities and their relationships.

In addition to formalizing mathematics, category theory is also used to formalize many other systems in [[computer science]], such as the [[semantics of programming languages]].

Two categories are the same if they have the same collection of objects, the same collection of arrows, and the same associative method of composing any pair of arrows. Two ''different'' categories may also be considered "[[equivalence of categories|equivalent]]" for purposes of category theory, even if they do not have precisely the same structure.

Well-known categories are denoted by a short capitalized word or abbreviation in bold or italics: examples include '''[[category of sets|Set]]''', the category of [[set (mathematics)|sets]] and [[function (mathematics)|set functions]]; '''[[category of rings|Ring]]''', the category of [[ring (mathematics)|rings]] and [[ring homomorphism]]s; and '''[[category of topological spaces|Top]]''', the category of [[topological space]]s and [[continuous map]]s. All of the preceding categories have the [[identity function|identity map]] as identity arrows and [[function composition|composition]] as the associative operation on arrows.

The classic and still much used text on category theory is ''[[Categories for the Working Mathematician]]'' by [[Saunders Mac Lane]]. Other references are given in the [[#References|References]] below. The basic definitions in this article are contained within the first few chapters of any of these books.

Any [[monoid]] can be understood as a special sort of category (with a single object whose self-morphisms are represented by the elements of the monoid), and so can any [[preorder]].

==Definition==
{{Group-like structures}}
There are many equivalent definitions of a category.<ref>{{harvnb|Barr|Wells|2005|loc=Chapter 1}}</ref> One commonly used definition is as follows. A '''category''' <math>\mathcal{C}</math> consists of
* a [[Class (set theory)|class]] <math>\operatorname{ob}(\mathcal{C})</math> of '''[[mathematical_object|object]]s''',
* a class <math>\operatorname{mor}(\mathcal{C})</math> of '''[[morphism]]s''' or '''arrows''',
* a '''domain''' or '''source''' class function <math>\operatorname{dom} : \operatorname{mor}(\mathcal{C}) \to \operatorname{ob}(\mathcal{C})</math>,
* a '''codomain''' or '''target''' class function <math>\operatorname{cod} : \operatorname{mor}(\mathcal{C}) \to \operatorname{ob}(\mathcal{C})</math>,
* for every three objects <math>a, b, c</math>, a binary operation <math>\operatorname{hom}(a,b) \times \operatorname{hom}(b,c) \to \operatorname{hom}(a,c)</math> called '''composition of morphisms'''. Here <math>\operatorname{hom}(a,b)</math> denotes the subclass of morphisms <math>f</math> in <math>\operatorname{mor}(\mathcal{C})</math> such that <math>\operatorname{dom}(f) = a</math> and <math>\operatorname{cod}(f) = b</math>. Morphisms in this subclass are written <math>f : a \to b</math>, and the composite of <math>f : a \to b</math> and <math>g : b \to c</math> is often written as <math>g \circ f</math> or <math>gf</math>.
such that the following axioms hold:
* the ''[[associativity|associative law]]'': if <math>f : a \to b</math>, <math>g : b \to c</math> and <math>h : c \to d</math> then <math>h \circ (g \circ f) = (h \circ g) \circ f</math>, and
* the '''([[identity (mathematics)|left and right unit laws]])''': for every object <math>x</math>, there exists a morphism <math>1_x : x \to x</math> (some authors write <math>\operatorname{id}_x</math>) called the ''identity morphism for <math>x</math>'', such that every morphism <math>f : a \to x</math> satisfies <math>1_x \circ f = f</math>, and every morphism <math>g : x \to b</math> satisfies <math>g \circ 1_x = g</math>.

We write <math>f : a \to b</math>, and we say "<math>f</math> is a morphism from <math>a</math> to <math>b</math>". We write <math>\operatorname{hom}(a,b)</math> (or <math>\operatorname{hom}_{\mathcal{C}}(a,b)</math> when there may be confusion about to which category <math>\operatorname{hom}(a,b)</math> refers) to denote the '''hom-class''' of all morphisms from <math>a</math> to <math>b</math>.<ref>Some authors write <math>\operatorname{Mor}(a,b)</math> or simply <math>\mathcal{C}(a,b)</math> instead.</ref>

Some authors write the composite of morphisms in "diagrammatic order", writing <math>f \, ; g</math> (sometimes with ⨟ <ref>{{cite arXiv |last1=Fong |first1=Brendan |last2=Spivak |first2=David I. |title=Seven Sketches in Compositionality: An Invitation to Applied Category Theory |eprint=1803.05316 |class=math.CT |date=2018 |page=12}}</ref>) or <math>fg</math> instead of <math>g \circ f</math>.

From these axioms, one can prove that there is exactly one identity morphism for every object. Often the map assigning each object its identity morphism is treated as an extra part of the structure of a category, namely a class function <math>i : \operatorname{ob}(\mathcal{C}) \to \operatorname{mor}(\mathcal{C})</math>.

Some authors use a slight variant of the definition in which each object is identified with the corresponding identity morphism. This stems from the idea that the fundamental data of categories are morphisms and not objects. In fact, categories can be defined without reference to objects at all using a partial binary operation with additional properties.

==Small and large categories==

A category ''C'' is called '''small''' if both ob(''C'') and mor(''C'') are actually [[Set (mathematics)|sets]] and not [[proper class]]es, and '''large''' otherwise. A '''locally small category''' is a category such that for all objects ''a'' and ''b'', the hom-class hom(''a'', ''b'') is a set, called a '''homset'''. Many important categories in mathematics (such as the category of sets), although not small, are at least locally small. Since, in small categories, the objects form a set, a small category can be viewed as an [[algebraic structure]] similar to a [[monoid]] but without requiring [[closure (mathematics)|closure]] properties. Large categories on the other hand can be used to create "structures" of algebraic structures.

==Examples==
The [[class (set theory)|class]] of all sets (as objects) together with all [[function (mathematics)|function]]s between them (as morphisms), where the composition of morphisms is the usual [[function composition]], forms a large category, '''[[category of sets|Set]]'''. It is the most basic and the most commonly used category in mathematics. The category '''[[category of relations|Rel]]''' consists of all [[Set (mathematics)|sets]] (as objects) with [[binary relation]]s between them (as morphisms). Abstracting from [[Relation (mathematics)|relations]] instead of functions yields [[Allegory (category theory)|allegories]], a special class of categories.

Any class can be viewed as a category whose only morphisms are the identity morphisms. Such categories are called [[discrete category|discrete]]. For any given [[Set (mathematics)|set]] ''I'', the ''discrete category on I'' is the small category that has the elements of ''I'' as objects and only the identity morphisms as morphisms. Discrete categories are the simplest kind of category.

Any [[Preorder|preordered set]] (''P'', ≤) forms a small category, where the objects are the members of ''P'', the morphisms are arrows pointing from ''x'' to ''y'' when ''x'' ≤ ''y''. Furthermore, if ''≤'' is [[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]], there can be at most one morphism between any two objects. The existence of identity morphisms and the composability of the morphisms are guaranteed by the [[reflexive relation|reflexivity]] and the [[transitive relation|transitivity]] of the preorder. By the same argument, any [[partially ordered set]] and any [[equivalence relation]] can be seen as a small category. Any [[ordinal number]] can be seen as a category when viewed as an [[total order|ordered set]].

Any [[monoid]] (any [[algebraic structure]] with a single [[associative]] [[binary operation]] and an [[identity element]]) forms a small category with a single object ''x''. (Here, ''x'' is any fixed set.) The morphisms from ''x'' to ''x'' are precisely the elements of the monoid, the identity morphism of ''x'' is the identity of the monoid, and the categorical composition of morphisms is given by the monoid operation. Several definitions and theorems about monoids may be generalized for categories.

Similarly any [[group (mathematics)|group]] can be seen as a category with a single object in which every morphism is ''invertible'', that is, for every morphism ''f'' there is a morphism ''g'' that is both [[Morphism#Some specific morphisms|left and right inverse]] to ''f'' under composition. A morphism that is invertible in this sense is called an [[isomorphism]].

A [[groupoid]] is a category in which every morphism is an isomorphism. Groupoids are generalizations of groups, [[Group action (mathematics)|group action]]s and [[equivalence relation]]s. Actually, in the view of category the only difference between groupoid and group is that a groupoid may have more than one object but the group must have only one. Consider a topological space ''X'' and fix a base point <math>x_0</math> of ''X'', then <math>\pi_1(X,x_0)</math> is the [[fundamental group]] of the topological space ''X'' and the base point <math>x_0</math>, and as a set it has the structure of group; if then let the base point <math>x_0</math> runs over all points of ''X'', and take the union of all <math>\pi_1(X,x_0)</math>, then the set we get has only the structure of groupoid (which is called as the [[fundamental groupoid]] of ''X''): two loops (under equivalence relation of homotopy) may not have the same base point so they cannot multiply with each other. In the language of category, this means here two morphisms may not have the same source object (or target object, because in this case for any morphism the source object and the target object are same: the base point) so they can not compose with each other.

[[File:Directed.svg|125px|thumb|A directed graph.]]
Any [[directed graph]] [[Generating set|generates]] a small category: the objects are the [[Vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] of the graph, and the morphisms are the paths in the graph (augmented with [[loop (graph theory)|loop]]s as needed) where composition of morphisms is concatenation of paths. Such a category is called the ''[[free category]]'' generated by the graph.

The class of all preordered sets with order-preserving functions (i.e., monotone-increasing functions) as morphisms forms a category, '''[[category of preordered sets|Ord]]'''. It is a [[concrete category]], i.e. a category obtained by adding some type of structure onto '''Set''', and requiring that morphisms are functions that respect this added structure.

The class of all groups with [[group homomorphism]]s as [[morphism]]s and [[function composition]] as the composition operation forms a large category, '''[[Category of groups|Grp]]'''. Like '''Ord''', '''Grp''' is a concrete category. The category '''[[category of abelian groups|Ab]]''', consisting of all [[abelian group]]s and their group homomorphisms, is a [[full subcategory]] of '''Grp''', and the prototype of an [[abelian category]].

The class of all [[graph theory|graphs]] forms another concrete category, where morphisms are graph homomorphisms (i.e., mappings between graphs which send vertices to vertices and edges to edges in a way that preserves all adjacency and incidence relations).

Other examples of concrete categories are given by the following table.

{| class="wikitable"
!Category
!Objects
!Morphisms
|-
|'''[[category of sets|Set]]'''
|[[Set (mathematics)|set]]s
|[[Function (mathematics)|function]]s
|-
|'''[[category of preordered sets|Ord]]'''
|preordered sets
|monotone-increasing functions
|-
|'''[[category of monoids|Mon]]'''
|[[monoids]]
|[[Monoid#Monoid homomorphisms|monoid homomorphisms]]
|-
|'''[[category of groups|Grp]]'''
|[[Group (mathematics)|group]]s
|[[group homomorphism]]s
|-
|'''[[category of graphs|Grph]]'''
|[[graph theory|graph]]s
|graph homomorphisms
|-
|'''[[category of rings|Ring]]'''
|[[ring (mathematics)|ring]]s
|[[ring homomorphism]]s
|-
|'''[[category of fields|Field]]'''
|[[field (mathematics)|field]]s
|[[field homomorphism]]s
|-
|'''[[category of modules|''R''-Mod]]'''
|[[module (mathematics)|''R''-modules]], where ''R'' is a ring
|[[module homomorphism|''R''-module homomorphisms]]
|-
|[[K-Vect|'''Vect'''''K'']]
|[[vector space]]s over the [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''K''
|''K''-[[linear map]]s
|-
|'''[[category of metric spaces|Met]]'''
|[[metric space]]s
|[[short map]]s
|-
|'''[[Category of measurable spaces|Meas]]'''
|[[measure space]]s
|[[measurable function]]s
|-
|'''[[Category of Markov kernels|Stoch]]'''
|[[measure space]]s
|[[Markov kernel]]s
|-
|'''[[category of topological spaces|Top]]'''
|[[topological space]]s
|[[continuous function (topology)|continuous function]]s
|-
|[[category of manifolds|'''Man'''''p'']]
|[[smooth manifold]]s
|''p''-times [[continuously differentiable]] maps
|}

[[Fiber bundle]]s with [[bundle map]]s between them form a concrete category.

The category '''[[category of small categories|Cat]]''' consists of all small categories, with [[functor]]s between them as morphisms.

== Construction of new categories ==

=== Dual category ===
Any category ''C'' can itself be considered as a new category in a different way: the objects are the same as those in the original category but the arrows are those of the original category reversed. This is called the [[Opposite category|''dual'' or ''opposite category'']] and is denoted ''C''op.

=== Product categories ===
If ''C'' and ''D'' are categories, one can form the ''product category'' ''C'' × ''D'': the objects are pairs consisting of one object from ''C'' and one from ''D'', and the morphisms are also pairs, consisting of one morphism in ''C'' and one in ''D''. Such pairs can be composed [[N-tuple|componentwise]].

==Types of morphisms==
A [[morphism]] ''f'' : ''a'' → ''b'' is called
* a ''[[monomorphism]]'' (or ''monic'') if it is left-cancellable, i.e. ''fg''1 = ''fg''2 implies ''g''1 = ''g''2 for all morphisms ''g''1, ''g''2 : ''x'' → ''a''.
* an ''[[epimorphism]]'' (or ''epic'') if it is right-cancellable, i.e. ''g''1''f'' = ''g''2''f'' implies ''g''1 = ''g''2 for all morphisms ''g''1, ''g''2 : ''b'' → ''x''.
* a ''[[bimorphism]]'' if it is both a monomorphism and an epimorphism.
* a ''[[retract (category theory)|retraction]]'' if it has a right inverse, i.e. if there exists a morphism ''g'' : ''b'' → ''a'' with ''fg'' = 1''b''.
* a ''[[section (category theory)|section]]'' if it has a left inverse, i.e. if there exists a morphism ''g'' : ''b'' → ''a'' with ''gf'' = 1''a''.
* an ''[[isomorphism]]'' if it has an inverse, i.e. if there exists a morphism ''g'' : ''b'' → ''a'' with ''fg'' = 1''b'' and ''gf'' = 1''a''.
* an ''[[endomorphism]]'' if ''a'' = ''b''. The class of endomorphisms of ''a'' is denoted end(''a''). For locally small categories, end(''a'') is a ''set'' and forms a [[monoid]] under morphism composition.
* an ''[[automorphism]]'' if ''f'' is both an endomorphism and an isomorphism. The class of automorphisms of ''a'' is denoted aut(''a''). For locally small categories, it forms a [[group (mathematics)|group]] under morphism composition called the ''[[automorphism group]]'' of ''a''.

Every retraction is an epimorphism. Every section is a monomorphism. The following three statements are equivalent:
* ''f'' is a monomorphism and a retraction;
* ''f'' is an epimorphism and a section;
* ''f'' is an isomorphism.

Relations among morphisms (such as ''fg'' = ''h'') can most conveniently be represented with [[commutative diagram]]s, where the objects are represented as points and the morphisms as arrows.

==Types of categories==
* In many categories, e.g. '''[[category of abelian groups|Ab]]''' or [[K-Vect|'''Vect'''''K'']], the hom-sets hom(''a'', ''b'') are not just sets but actually [[abelian group]]s, and the composition of morphisms is compatible with these group structures; i.e. is [[Bilinear form|bilinear]]. Such a category is called [[preadditive category|preadditive]]. If, furthermore, the category has all finite [[product (category theory)|products]] and [[coproduct]]s, it is called an [[additive category]]. If all morphisms have a [[kernel (category theory)|kernel]] and a [[cokernel]], and all epimorphisms are cokernels and all monomorphisms are kernels, then we speak of an [[abelian category]]. A typical example of an abelian category is the category of abelian groups.
* A category is called [[complete category|complete]] if all small [[limit (category theory)|limits]] exist in it. The categories of sets, abelian groups and topological spaces are complete.
* A category is called [[cartesian closed category|cartesian closed]] if it has finite direct products and a morphism defined on a finite product can always be represented by a morphism defined on just one of the factors. Examples include '''[[Category of sets|Set]]''' and '''CPO''', the category of [[complete partial order]]s with [[Scott continuity|Scott-continuous functions]].
* A [[topos]] is a certain type of cartesian closed category in which all of mathematics can be formulated (just like classically all of mathematics is formulated in the category of sets). A topos can also be used to represent a logical theory.

==See also==
{{Portal|Mathematics}}
* [[Enriched category]]
* [[Higher category theory]]
* [[Quantaloid]]
* [[Table of mathematical symbols]]
*[[Space (mathematics)]]
*[[Structure (mathematics)]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation| last1=Adámek |first1=Jiří |last2=Herrlich |first2=Horst |last3=Strecker |first3=George E. |year=1990 |title=Abstract and Concrete Categories |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-471-60922-6|url=http://katmat.math.uni-bremen.de/acc/acc.pdf}} (now free on-line edition, [[GNU Free Documentation License|GNU FDL]]).
* {{Citation| last1=Asperti| first1=Andrea| last2=Longo| first2=Giuseppe| year=1991| title=Categories, Types and Structures| publisher=MIT Press| url=https://archive.org/details/c

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Grammatical category

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ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Property of items within the grammar of a language}} {{Distinguish|Part of speech}} {{Grammatical categories}} In linguistics, a '''grammatical category''' or '''grammatical feature''' is a property of items within the grammar of a language. Within each category there are two or more possible values (sometimes called grammemes), which are normally mutually exclusive. Frequently encountered grammatical categories include: * Grammati..."

{{Short description|Property of items within the grammar of a language}}
{{Distinguish|Part of speech}}
{{Grammatical categories}}

In [[linguistics]], a '''grammatical category''' or '''grammatical feature''' is a property of items within the [[grammar]] of a [[language]]. Within each category there are two or more possible values (sometimes called [[grammeme]]s), which are normally mutually exclusive. Frequently encountered grammatical categories include:
* [[Grammatical case|Case]], varying according to function.
* [[Grammatical gender|Gender]], with values like male, female, animate, inanimate, neuter, and more general classes.
* [[Grammatical number|Number]], varying according to the number of things.
* [[Grammatical tense|Tense]], varying according to when an action takes place, whether in the present, past or future.
* [[Grammatical aspect|Aspect]], varying according to how much time an action will take, whether finished, repeated or habitual.
* [[Grammatical mood|Mood]], varying according to modality, or the speaker's attitude towards the action.

Although the use of terms varies from author to author, a distinction should be made between grammatical categories and lexical categories. '''Lexical categories''' (considered [[Syntactic category|syntactic categories]]) largely correspond to the [[part of speech|parts of speech]] of traditional grammar, and refer to nouns, adjectives, etc.

A [[phonology|phonological]] manifestation of a category value (for example, a word ending that marks "number" on a noun) is sometimes called an [[exponent (linguistics)|exponent]].

[[Grammatical relation]]s define relationships between words and phrases with certain parts of speech, depending on their position in the syntactic tree. Traditional relations include [[subject (grammar)|subject]], [[object (grammar)|object]], and [[indirect object]].

==Assignment and meaning==
A given [[Constituent (linguistics)|constituent]] of an expression can normally take only one value in each category. For example, a noun or [[noun phrase]] cannot be both singular and plural, since these are both values of the "number" category. It can, however, be both plural and feminine, since these represent different categories (number and gender).

Categories may be described and named with regard to the type of [[semantics|meaning]]s that they are used to express. For example, the category of [[grammatical tense|tense]] usually expresses the time of occurrence (e.g. past, present or future). However, purely grammatical features do not always correspond simply or consistently to elements of meaning, and different authors may take significantly different approaches in their terminology and analysis. For example, the meanings associated with the categories of tense, [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] and [[grammatical mood|mood]] are often bound up in verb [[conjugation (grammar)|conjugation]] patterns that do not have separate grammatical elements corresponding to each of the three categories; see [[Tense–aspect–mood]].

==Manifestation of categories==
Categories may be marked on [[word]]s by means of [[inflection]]. In [[English grammar|English]], for example, the number of a [[noun]] is usually marked by leaving the noun uninflected if it is singular, and by adding the suffix ''-s'' if it is plural (although some nouns have [[English plural|irregular plural forms]]). On other occasions, a category may not be marked overtly on the item to which it pertains, being manifested only through other grammatical features of the sentence, often by way of grammatical [[Agreement (linguistics)|agreement]].

For example:
<blockquote><poem>The bird can sing.
The bird'''s''' can sing.</poem></blockquote>
In the above sentences, the number of the noun is marked by the absence or presence of the ending ''-s''.
<blockquote><poem>The sheep '''is''' running.
The sheep '''are''' running.</poem></blockquote>
In the above, the number of the noun is not marked on the noun itself (''sheep'' does not inflect according to the regular pattern), but it is reflected in agreement between the noun and verb: singular number triggers ''is'', and plural number ''are''.
<blockquote><poem>The bird '''is''' singing.
The bird'''s''' '''are''' singing.</poem></blockquote>
In this case the number is marked overtly on the noun, and is also reflected by verb agreement.

However:
<blockquote>The sheep can run.</blockquote>
In this case the number of the noun (or of the verb) is not manifested at all in the [[surface form]] of the sentence, and thus ambiguity is introduced (at least, when the sentence is viewed in isolation).

Exponents of grammatical categories often appear in the same position or "slot" in the word (such as [[prefix]], [[suffix]] or [[enclitic]]). An example of this is the [[Latin declension|Latin cases]], which are all suffixal: ''ros'''a''', ros'''ae''', ros'''ae''', ros'''am''', ros'''a''', ros'''ā''''' ("rose", in the [[nominative]], [[genitive]], [[dative]], [[accusative]], [[vocative]] and [[ablative]]).

Categories can also pertain to sentence constituents that are larger than a single word ([[phrase (grammar)|phrase]]s, or sometimes [[clause (grammar)|clause]]s). A phrase often inherits category values from its [[head (linguistics)|head]] word; for example, in the above sentences, the [[noun phrase]] ''the birds'' inherits plural number from the noun ''birds''. In other cases such values are associated with the way in which the phrase is constructed; for example, in the [[coordination (linguistics)|coordinated]] noun phrase ''Tom and Mary'', the phrase has plural number (it would take a plural verb), even though both the nouns from which it is built up are singular.

== Grammatical category of noun ==

In traditional structural grammar, grammatical categories are semantic distinctions; this is reflected in a morphological or syntactic paradigm. But in [[generative grammar]], which sees meaning as separate from grammar, they are categories that define the distribution of syntactic elements.<ref>[[Joan Bybee]] "Irrealis" as a Grammatical Category. Anthropological Linguistics, Vol. 40, No. 2 (Summer, 1998), pp. 257-271</ref> For structuralists such as [[Roman Jakobson]] grammatical categories were lexemes that were based on binary oppositions of "a single feature of meaning that is equally present in all contexts of use". Another way to define a grammatical category is as a category that expresses meanings from a single conceptual domain, contrasts with other such categories, and is expressed through formally similar expressions.<ref>[https://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOflinguisticTerms/WhatIsAGrammaticalCategory.htm What is a grammatical category?] - SIL.org</ref> Another definition distinguishes grammatical categories from lexical categories, such that the elements in a grammatical category have a common grammatical meaning – that is, they are part of the language's grammatical structure.<ref>"grammatical category" The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. P. H. Matthews. Oxford University Press, 2007. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Brown University. 31 March 2012 <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t36.e1391></ref>

== See also ==
* [[Grammatical relation]]
* [[Grammeme]]
* [[Syntax]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Commonscatinline|Grammatical categories}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Grammatical moods}}
{{Formal semantics}}

[[Category:Grammatical categories| ]]

Syntactic category

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ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Word classes, largely corresponding to traditional parts of speech}} A '''syntactic category''' is a syntactic unit that theories of syntax assume.<ref>For the general reasoning behind syntactic categories, see Bach (1974:70-71) and Haegeman (1994:36).</ref> Word classes, largely corresponding to traditional parts of speech (e.g. noun, verb, preposition, etc.), are syntactic categories. In phrase structure grammars, the ''phrasal categorie..."

{{Short description|Word classes, largely corresponding to traditional parts of speech}}
A '''syntactic category''' is a syntactic unit that theories of [[syntax]] assume.<ref>For the general reasoning behind syntactic categories, see Bach (1974:70-71) and Haegeman (1994:36).</ref> Word classes, largely corresponding to traditional [[parts of speech]] (e.g. noun, verb, preposition, etc.), are syntactic categories. In [[phrase structure grammar]]s, the ''phrasal categories'' (e.g. [[noun phrase]], [[verb phrase]], [[prepositional phrase]], etc.) are also syntactic categories. [[Dependency grammar]]s, however, do not acknowledge phrasal categories (at least not in the traditional sense).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Luraghi|first1=Sylvia|title=Key Terms in Syntax and Syntactic theories.|last2=Parodi|first2=Claudi|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group.|year=2008|pages=15–17}}</ref>

Word classes considered as syntactic categories may be called ''lexical categories'', as distinct from phrasal categories. The terminology is somewhat inconsistent between the theoretical models of different linguists.<ref name=":0" /> However, many grammars also draw a distinction between ''lexical categories'' (which tend to consist of [[content word]]s, or phrases [[head (linguistics)|headed]] by them) and ''functional categories'' (which tend to consist of [[function word]]s or abstract functional elements, or phrases headed by them). The term ''lexical category'' therefore has two distinct meanings. Moreover, syntactic categories should not be confused with [[grammatical category|grammatical categories]] (also known as grammatical [[feature (linguistics)|feature]]s), which are properties such as [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical gender|gender]], etc.

==Defining criteria==
At least three criteria are used in defining syntactic categories:

::#The type of meaning it expresses
::#The type of [[affix]]es it takes
::#The structure in which it occurs

For instance, many nouns in English denote concrete entities, they are pluralized with the suffix ''-s'', and they occur as subjects and objects in clauses. Many verbs denote actions or states, they are conjugated with agreement suffixes (e.g. ''-s'' of the third person singular in English), and in English they tend to show up in medial positions of the clauses in which they appear.

The third criterion is also known as ''distribution''. The distribution of a given syntactic unit determines the syntactic category to which it belongs. The distributional behavior of syntactic units is identified by substitution.<ref>See Culicover (1982:8ff.).</ref> Like syntactic units can be substituted for each other.

Additionally, there are also informal criteria one can use in order to determine syntactic categories. For example, one informal means of determining if an item is lexical, as opposed to functional, is to see if it is left behind in "telegraphic speech" (that is, the way a telegram would be written; e.g., ''Pants fire. Bring water, need help.'')<ref>{{cite book|last=Carnie|first=Andrew|title=Syntax A Generative Introduction|year=2013|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=MA, US|page=52|isbn=9781118321874|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MFZ1UV3YGtgC&q=%22syntactic%20categories%22}}</ref>

==Lexical categories vs. phrasal categories==
The traditional [[parts of speech]] are lexical categories, in one meaning of that term.<ref>See for instance Emonds (1976:14), Culicover (1982:12), Brown and Miller (1991:24, 105), Cowper (1992:20, 173), Napoli (1993:169, 52), Haegeman (1994:38), Culicover (1997:19), Brinton (2000:169).</ref> Traditional grammars tend to acknowledge approximately eight to twelve lexical categories, e.g.

::Lexical categories
::[[adjective]] (A), [[adposition]] (preposition, postposition, circumposition) (P), [[adverb]] (Adv), [[Conjunction (grammar)#Coordinating conjunctions|coordinate]] [[conjunction (grammar)|conjunction]] (C), [[Determiner (linguistics)|determiner]] (D), [[interjection]] (I), [[noun]] (N), [[Grammatical particle|particle]] (Par), [[pronoun]] (Pr), [[Conjunction (grammar)#Subordinating conjunctions|subordinate]] [[conjunction (grammar)|conjunction]] (Sub), [[verb]] (V), etc.

The lexical categories that a given grammar assumes will likely vary from this list. Certainly numerous subcategories can be acknowledged. For instance, one can view pronouns as a subtype of noun, and verbs can be divided into [[finite verb]]s and [[non-finite verb]]s (e.g. gerund, infinitive, participle, etc.). The central lexical categories give rise to corresponding phrasal categories:<ref>See for instance Emonds (1976:12), Culicover (1982:13), Brown and Miller (1991:107), Cowper (1992:20), Napoli(1993:165), Haegeman (1994:38).</ref>

::Phrasal categories
::[[Adjective phrase]] (AP), [[adverb phrase]] (AdvP), [[Prepositional phrase|adposition phrase]] (PP), [[noun phrase]] (NP), [[verb phrase]] (VP), etc.

In terms of [[phrase structure rules]], phrasal categories can occur to the left of the arrow while lexical categories cannot, e.g. NP → D N. Traditionally, a phrasal category should consist of two or more words, although conventions vary in this area. [[X-bar theory]], for instance, often sees individual words corresponding to phrasal categories. Phrasal categories are illustrated with the following trees:

::[[File:Syntactic category1.jpg|Syntactic categories PSG]]

The lexical and phrasal categories are identified according to the node labels, phrasal categories receiving the "P" designation.

==Lexical categories only==
[[Dependency grammar]]s do not acknowledge phrasal categories in the way that [[phrase structure grammar]]s do.<ref name=":0" /> What this means is that the interaction between lexical and phrasal categories disappears, the result being that only the lexical categories are acknowledged.<ref>{{Cite web|date=June 2000|title=A Grammar of English|url=https://www.public.asu.edu/~gelderen/314text/chap2.htm|website=Public ASU}}</ref> The tree representations are simpler because the number of nodes and categories is reduced, e.g.

::[[File:Syntactic category 2.jpg|Syntactic categories DG]]

The distinction between lexical and phrasal categories is absent here. The number of nodes is reduced by removing all nodes marked with "P". Note, however, that phrases can still be acknowledged insofar as any subtree that contains two or more words qualifies as a phrase.

==Lexical categories vs. functional categories==
Many grammars draw a distinction between ''lexical categories'' and ''functional categories''.<ref>For examples of grammars that draw a distinction between lexical and functional categories, see for instance Fowler (1971:36, 40), Emonds (1976:13), Cowper (1992:173ff.), Culicover (1997:142), Haegeman and Guéron (1999:58), Falk (2001:34ff.), Carnie (2007:45f.).</ref> This distinction is orthogonal to the distinction between lexical categories and phrasal categories. In this context, the term ''lexical category'' applies only to those parts of speech and their phrasal counterparts that form open classes and have full semantic content. The parts of speech that form closed classes and have mainly just functional content are called ''functional categories'':

::Lexical categories
::Adjective (A) and adjective phrase (AP), adverb (Adv) and adverb phrase (AdvP), noun (N) and noun phrase (NP), verb and verb phrase (VP), preposition and prepositional phrase (PP)

::Functional categories
::Coordinate conjunction (C), determiner (D), negation (Neg), particle (Par), preposition (P) and prepositional phrase (PP), subordinate conjunction (Sub), etc.

There is disagreement in certain areas, for instance concerning the status of [[Prepositions in English|prepositions]]. The distinction between lexical and functional categories plays a big role in Chomskyan grammars (Transformational Grammar, Government and Binding Theory, Minimalist Program), where the role of the functional categories is large. Many phrasal categories are assumed that do not correspond directly to a specific part of speech, e.g. [[inflection phrase]] (IP), tense phrase (TP), agreement phrase (AgrP), [[focus (linguistics)|focus]] phrase (FP), etc. (see also [[Phrase#Functional categories|Phrase → Functional categories]]). In order to acknowledge such functional categories, one has to assume that the constellation is a primitive of the theory and that it exists separately from the words that appear. As a consequence, many grammar frameworks do not acknowledge such functional categories, e.g. Head Driven Phrase Structure Grammar, Dependency Grammar, etc.

:''Note: The abbreviations for these categories vary across systems; see {{section link|Part-of-speech tagging|Tag sets}}.''

==Labels in the Minimalist Program==
Early research suggested shifting away from the use of labelling, as they were considered to be non-optimal for the analysis of syntactic structure, and should therefore be eliminated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Collins|first1=Chris|title=Eliminating Labels |journal=In Derivation and Explanation in the Minimalist Program|date=2002 |pages=33–49}}</ref> Collins (2002) argued that, although labels such as Noun, Pronoun, Adjective and the like were unavoidable and undoubtedly useful for categorizing syntactic items, providing labels for the projections of those items, was not useful and was, in fact, detrimental to structural analysis, since there were disagreements and discussions about how exactly to label these projections. The labeling of projections such as Noun Phrases (NP), Verb Phrases (VP), and others have since been a topic of discussion amongst syntacticians, who have since then been working on labelling algorithms to solve the very problem brought up by Collins.

In line with both [[Phrase structure grammar|Phrase Structure Rules]] and [[X-bar theory]], syntactic labelling plays an important role within Chomsky's [[Minimalist program|Minimalist Program (MP)]]. Chomsky first developed the MP by means of creating a theoretical framework for generative grammar that can be applied universally among all languages. In contrast to Phrase Structure Rules and X-bar theory, many of the research and proposed theories done on labels are fairly recent and still ongoing.

==See also==
* [[Dependency grammar]]
* [[Empty category]]
* [[Grammatical category]]
* [[Lexical category]] (part of speech)
* [[Merge (linguistics)]]
* [[Phrase]]
* [[Phrase structure grammar]]
* [[Syntax]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Div col}}
*Bach, E. 1974. Syntactic theory. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
*Brinton, L. 2000. The structure of modern English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
*Brown, K. and J. Miller. 1991. Syntax: A linguistic introduction to sentence structure, 2nd edition. London: UK: HarperCollins ''Academic''.
*Carnie, A. 2007. Syntax: A generative introduction, 2nd edition. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
*Cowper, E. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books?id=E9gnAgAAQBAJ A concise introduction to syntactic theory: The government-binding approach]. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
*Culicover, P. 1982. Syntax, 2nd edition. New York: Academic Press.
*Culicover, P. 1997. Principles and Parameters: An introduction to syntactic theory. Oxford University Press.
*Emonds, J. 1976. A transformational approach to English syntax: Root, structure-preserving, and local-transformations. New York: Academic-Press.
*Falk, Y. 2001. Lexical-Functional Grammar: An introduction to parallel constraint-based syntax. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.
*Fowler, R. 1971. An introduction to transformational syntax. New York: Barnes and Noblles Inc.
*Haegeman, L. 1994. Introduction to government and binding theory, 2nd edition. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
*Haegeman, L. and J. Guéron. 1999. English grammar: A generative perspective. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.
{{div col end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Syntactic Category}}
[[Category:Syntactic categories|*]]

Lexical category

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ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Category of words based on shared grammatical properties in a clause}} {{about||the album by Dessa|Parts of Speech (album)}} {{Distinguish|Grammatical category}} In grammar, a '''part of speech''' or '''part-of-speech''' (abbreviated as '''POS''' or '''PoS''', also known as '''word class'''<ref name=rijkhoff2007>{{cite journal | last=Rijkhoff | first=Jan | title=Word Classes | journal=Language and Linguistics Compass | publisher=W..."

{{Short description|Category of words based on shared grammatical properties in a clause}}
{{about||the album by Dessa|Parts of Speech (album)}}
{{Distinguish|Grammatical category}}
In [[grammar]], a '''part of speech''' or '''part-of-speech''' ([[Abbreviation|abbreviated]] as '''POS''' or '''PoS''', also known as '''word class'''<ref name=rijkhoff2007>{{cite journal | last=Rijkhoff | first=Jan | title=Word Classes | journal=Language and Linguistics Compass | publisher=Wiley | volume=1 | issue=6 | year=2007 | issn=1749-818X | doi=10.1111/j.1749-818x.2007.00030.x | pages=709–726| s2cid=5404720 }}</ref> or '''grammatical category'''<ref>{{cite book |last=Payne |first=Thomas E. |title=Describing morphosyntax: a guide for field linguists |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1997 |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780511805066}}</ref>) is a category of words (or, more generally, of [[lexical item]]s) that have similar [[grammar|grammatical]] properties. Words that are assigned to the same part of speech generally display similar [[syntax|syntactic]] behavior (they play similar roles within the grammatical structure of sentences), sometimes similar [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] behavior in that they undergo [[inflection]] for similar properties and even similar [[semantic]] behavior. Commonly listed [[English language|English]] parts of speech are [[noun]], [[verb]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], [[pronoun]], [[preposition]], [[conjunction (grammar)|conjunction]], [[interjection]], [[Numeral (linguistics)|numeral]], [[article (grammar)|article]], and [[determiner]].

Other terms than ''part of speech''—particularly in modern [[linguistics|linguistic]] classifications, which often make more precise distinctions than the traditional scheme does—include '''word class''', '''lexical class''', and '''lexical category'''. Some authors restrict the term ''lexical category'' to refer only to a particular type of [[syntactic category]]; for them the term excludes those parts of speech that are considered to be [[function word]]s, such as pronouns. The term '''form class''' is also used, although this has various conflicting definitions.<ref>John Lyons, ''Semantics'', CUP 1977, p. 424.</ref> Word classes may be classified as [[#Open and closed classes|open or closed]]: ''open classes'' (typically including nouns, verbs and adjectives) acquire new members constantly, while ''closed classes'' (such as pronouns and conjunctions) acquire new members infrequently, if at all.

Almost all languages have the word classes noun and verb, but beyond these two there are significant variations among different languages.<ref name="Krueger 2005 35">{{cite book|last=Krueger|first=Paul|title=Analyzing Grammar: An Introduction|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-01653-7|pages=35}}</ref> For example:
* [[Japanese language|Japanese]] has as many as [[Japanese adjectives|three classes of adjective]]s, where [[English language|English]] has one.
* [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] have a class of [[classifier (linguistics)|nominal classifier]]s.
* Many languages do not distinguish between adjectives and adverbs, or between adjectives and verbs (see [[stative verb]]).

Because of such variation in the number of categories and their identifying properties, analysis of parts of speech must be done for each individual language. Nevertheless, the labels for each category are assigned on the basis of universal criteria.<ref name="Krueger 2005 35"/>

==History==
The classification of words into lexical categories is found from the earliest moments in the [[history of linguistics]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Robins RH |year=1989 |title=General Linguistics |edition=4th |location=London |publisher=Longman}}</ref>

===India===
In the ''[[Nirukta]]'', written in the 6th or 5th century BCE, the [[Sanskrit]] grammarian [[Yāska]] defined four main categories of words:<ref name=Matilal>
{{cite book
|author = Bimal Krishna Matilal
|title = The word and the world: India's contribution to the study of language (Chapter 3)
|year = 1990
|author-link = Bimal Krishna Matilal
}}</ref>

* नाम ''nāma'' – [[noun]] (including adjective)
* आख्यात ''ākhyāta'' – [[verb]]
* उपसर्ग ''upasarga'' – pre-verb or [[prefix]]
* निपात ''nipāta'' – [[Grammatical particle|particle]], invariant word (perhaps [[preposition]])
These four were grouped into two larger classes: [[inflection|inflectable]] (nouns and verbs) and uninflectable (pre-verbs and particles).

The ancient work on the grammar of the [[Tamil language]], ''[[Tolkāppiyam]]'', argued to have been written around 2nd century CE,<ref name="Mahadevan">{{cite book |last=Mahadevan |first=I. |title=Early Tamil Epigraphy - From the Earliest Times to the Sixth century C.E., 2nd Edition |date=2014 |pages=271}}</ref> classifies Tamil words as ''peyar'' (பெயர்; noun), ''vinai'' (வினை; verb), ''idai'' (part of speech which modifies the relationships between verbs and nouns), and ''uri'' (word that further qualifies a noun or verb).<ref name=Ilakkuvan>
{{cite book
|author =Ilakkuvanar S
|title = Tholkappiyam in English with critical studies |edition=2nd
|publisher = Educational Publisher
|year = 1994
}}</ref>

===Western tradition===
A century or two after the work of Yāska, the [[Classical Greece|Greek]] scholar [[Plato]] wrote in his [[Cratylus (dialogue)|''Cratylus'' dialogue]], "sentences are, I conceive, a combination of verbs [''rhêma''] and nouns [''ónoma'']".<ref>Cratylus 431b</ref> [[Aristotle]] added another class, "conjunction" [''sýndesmos''], which included not only the words known today as [[Conjunction (grammar)|conjunctions]], but also other parts (the interpretations differ; in one interpretation it is [[pronoun]]s, [[preposition]]s, and the [[article (grammar)|article]]).<ref>''The Rhetoric, Poetic and Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle'', translated by Thomas Taylor, London 1811, p. 179.</ref>

By the end of the 2nd century BCE, grammarians had expanded this classification scheme into eight categories, seen in the ''[[Art of Grammar]]'', attributed to [[Dionysius Thrax]]:<ref>[[Dionysius Thrax]]. τέχνη γραμματική (Art of Grammar), [http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/graeca/Chronologia/S_ante02/DionysiosThrax/dio_tech.html#11 ια´ περὶ λέξεως (11. On the word)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315015105/http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/graeca/Chronologia/S_ante02/DionysiosThrax/dio_tech.html#11 |date=2015-03-15 }}:
:λέξις ἐστὶ μέρος ἐλάχιστον τοῦ κατὰ σύνταξιν λόγου. λόγος δέ ἐστι πεζῆς λέξεως σύνθεσις διάνοιαν αὐτοτελῆ δηλοῦσα. τοῦ δὲ λόγου μέρη ἐστὶν ὀκτώ· ὄνομα, ῥῆμα, μετοχή, ἄρθρον, ἀντωνυμία, πρόθεσις, ἐπίρρημα, σύνδεσμος. ἡ γὰρ προσηγορία ὡς εἶδος τῶι ὀνόματι ὑποβέβληται.
:A word is the smallest part of organized speech. Speech is the putting together of an ordinary word to express a complete thought. The class of word consists of eight categories: noun, verb, participle, article, pronoun, preposition, adverb, conjunction. A common noun in form is classified as a noun.</ref>

* 'Name' (''ónoma'') translated as 'noun': a part of speech inflected for [[grammatical case|case]], signifying a concrete or abstract entity. It includes various ''species'' like [[noun]]s, [[adjective]]s, proper nouns, appellatives, collectives, ordinals, numerals and more.<ref>The term ''[[wikt:onoma|onoma]]'' at [[Dionysius Thrax]], ''Τέχνη γραμματική'' (Art of Grammar), [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/Τέχνη_Γραμματική#14 14. Περὶ ὀνόματος] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910222435/https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%AD%CF%87%CE%BD%CE%B7_%CE%93%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE#14 |date=2022-09-10 }} translated by Thomas Davidson, [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_grammar_of_Dionysios_Thrax#10 On the noun] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804023008/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_grammar_of_Dionysios_Thrax#10 |date=2020-08-04 }}
: καὶ αὐτὰ εἴδη προσαγορεύεται· κύριον, προσηγορικόν, ἐπίθετον, πρός τι ἔχον, ὡς πρός τι ἔχον, ὁμώνυμον, συνώνυμον, διώνυμον, ἐπώνυμον, ἐθνικόν, ἐρωτηματικόν, ἀόριστον, ἀναφορικὸν ὃ καὶ ὁμοιωματικὸν καὶ δεικτικὸν καὶ ἀνταποδοτικὸν καλεῖται, περιληπτικόν, ἐπιμεριζόμενον, περιεκτικόν, πεποιημένον, γενικόν, ἰδικόν, τακτικόν, ἀριθμητικόν, ἀπολελυμένον, μετουσιαστικόν.
: also called ''Species'': proper, appellative, adjective, relative, quasi-relative, homonym, synonym, pheronym, dionym, eponym, national, interrogative, indefinite, anaphoric (also called assimilative, demonstrative, and retributive), collective, distributive, inclusive, onomatopoetic, general, special, ordinal, numeral, participative, independent.</ref>
* [[Verb]] (''rhêma''): a part of speech without case inflection, but inflected for [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical person|person]] and [[grammatical number|number]], signifying an activity or process performed or undergone
* [[Participle]] (''metokhḗ''): a part of speech sharing features of the verb and the noun
* [[Article (grammar)|Article]] (''árthron''): a declinable part of speech, taken to include the definite article, but also the basic [[relative pronoun]]
* [[Pronoun]] (''antōnymíā''): a part of speech substitutable for a noun and marked for a person
* [[Preposition]] (''próthesis''): a part of speech placed before other words in composition and in syntax
* [[Adverb]] (''epírrhēma''): a part of speech without inflection, in modification of or in addition to a verb, adjective, clause, sentence, or other adverb
* [[Grammatical conjunction|Conjunction]] (''sýndesmos''): a part of speech binding together the discourse and filling gaps in its interpretation

It can be seen that these parts of speech are defined by [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]], [[Syntax|syntactic]] and [[Semantics|semantic]] criteria.

The [[Latin grammar|Latin]] grammarian [[Priscian]] ([[floruit|fl.]] 500 CE) modified the above eightfold system, excluding "article" (since the [[Latin language]], unlike Greek, does not have articles) but adding "[[interjection]]".<ref>[penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/1B*.html This translation of Quintilian's ''Institutio Oratoria'' reads: "Our own language (Note: i.e. Latin) dispenses with the articles (Note: Latin doesn't have articles), which are therefore distributed among the other parts of speech. But interjections must be added to those already mentioned."]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/quintilian/quintilian.institutio1.shtml |via=The Latin Library |title= Quintilian: Institutio Oratoria I|access-date= 2015-09-18|archive-date= 2012-01-20|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120120203103/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/quintilian/quintilian.institutio1.shtml|url-status= live}}</ref>

The Latin names for the parts of speech, from which the corresponding modern English terms derive, were ''nomen'', ''verbum'', ''participium'', ''pronomen'', ''praepositio'', ''adverbium'', ''conjunctio'' and ''interjectio''. The category ''nomen'' included [[substantive]]s (''nomen substantivum'', corresponding to what are today called nouns in English), [[adjective]]s ''(nomen adjectivum)'' and [[Numeral (linguistics)|numeral]]s ''(nomen numerale)''. This is reflected in the older English terminology ''noun substantive'', ''noun adjective'' and ''noun numeral''. Later<ref>See for example Beauzée, Nicolas, ''Grammaire générale, ou exposition raisonnée des éléments nécessaires du langage'' (Paris, 1767), and earlier Jakob Redinger, [https://books.google.com/books?id=C7BeAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA11 ''Comeniana Grammatica Primae Classi Franckenthalensis Latinae Scholae destinata ...''] (1659, in German and Latin).</ref> the adjective became a separate class, as often did the numerals, and the English word ''noun'' came to be applied to substantives only.

=== Classification ===
Works of [[English grammar]] generally follow the pattern of the European tradition as described above, except that participles are now usually regarded as forms of verbs rather than as a separate part of speech, and numerals are often conflated with other parts of speech: nouns ([[Cardinal number (linguistics)|cardinal numeral]]s, e.g., "one", and [[collective numeral]]s, e.g., "dozen"), adjectives ([[Ordinal number (linguistics)|ordinal numeral]]s, e.g., "first", and [[Multiplier (linguistics)|multiplier numeral]]s, e.g., "single") and adverbs ([[English numerals#Multiplicative adverbs and adjectives|multiplicative numerals]], e.g., "once", and [[Distributive number|distributive numeral]]s, e.g., "singly"). Eight or nine parts of speech are commonly listed:

* [[Noun]]
* [[Verb]]
* [[Adjective]]
* [[Adverb]]
* [[Pronoun]]
* [[Preposition]]
* [[Grammatical conjunction|Conjunction]]
* [[Interjection]]
* [[Determiner]]

Some traditional classifications consider articles to be adjectives, yielding eight parts of speech rather than nine. And some modern classifications define further classes in addition to these. For discussion see the sections below.

Additionally, there are other parts of speech including [[Grammatical particle|particle]]s (''yes'', ''no''){{efn|name=yes no|1=Yes and no are sometimes classified as interjections.}} and [[postposition]]s (''ago'', ''notwithstanding'') although many fewer words are in these categories.

The classification below, or slight expansions of it, is still followed in most [[dictionaries]]:
;Noun (names): a word or lexical item denoting any abstract (abstract noun: e.g. ''home'') or concrete entity (concrete noun: e.g. ''house''); a person (''police officer'', ''Michael''), place (''coastline'', ''London''), thing (''necktie'', ''television''), idea (''happiness''), or quality (''bravery''). Nouns can also be classified as [[count noun]]s or [[mass noun|non-count nouns]]; some can belong to either category. The most common part of speech; they are called naming words.
;Pronoun (replaces or places again): a substitute for a noun or noun phrase (''them, he''). Pronouns make sentences shorter and clearer since they replace nouns.
;Adjective (describes, limits): a modifier of a noun or pronoun (''big, brave''). Adjectives make the meaning of another word (noun) more precise.
;Verb (states action or being): a word denoting an action (''walk''), occurrence (''happen''), or state of being (''be''). Without a verb, a group of words cannot be a clause or sentence.
;Adverb (describes, limits): a modifier of an adjective, verb, or another adverb (''very, quite''). Adverbs make language more precise.
;Preposition (relates): a word that relates words to each other in a phrase or sentence and aids in syntactic context (''in, of''). Prepositions show the relationship between a noun or a pronoun with another word in the sentence.
;Conjunction (connects): a syntactic connector; links words, phrases, or clauses (''and, but''). Conjunctions connect words or group of words.
;Interjection (expresses feelings and emotions): an emotional greeting or exclamation (''Huzzah, Alas''). Interjections express strong feelings and emotions.
;Article (describes, limits):a grammatical marker of definiteness (''the'') or indefiniteness (''a, an''). The article is not always listed separately as its own part of speech. It is considered by some grammarians to be a type of adjective<ref>''The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar'' by Bas Aarts, Sylvia Chalker & Edmund Weine. OUP Oxford 2014. Page 35.</ref> or sometimes the term '[[determiner]]' (a broader class) is used.

English words are not generally [[marker (linguistics)|marked]] as belonging to one part of speech or another; this contrasts with many other European languages, which use [[inflection]] more extensively, meaning that a given word form can often be identified as belonging to a particular part of speech and having certain additional [[grammatical category|grammatical properties]]. In English, most words are uninflected, while the inflected endings that exist are mostly ambiguous: ''[[-ed]]'' may mark a verbal past tense, a participle or a fully adjectival form; ''[[-s (disambiguation)|-s]]'' may mark a plural noun, a possessive noun, or a present-tense verb form; ''[[-ing]]'' may mark a participle, [[gerund]], or pure adjective or noun. Although ''[[-ly]]'' is a frequent adverb marker, some adverbs (e.g. ''tomorrow'', ''fast'', ''very'') do not have that ending, while many adjectives do have it (e.g. ''friendly'', ''ugly'', ''lovely''), as do occasional words in other parts of speech (e.g. ''jelly'', ''fly'', ''rely'').

Many English words can belong to more than one part of speech. Words like ''neigh'', ''break'', ''outlaw'', ''laser'', ''microwave'', and ''telephone'' might all be either verbs or nouns. In certain circumstances, even words with primarily grammatical functions can be used as verbs or nouns, as in, "We must look to the ''hows'' and not just the ''whys''." The process whereby a word comes to be used as a different part of speech is called [[conversion (word formation)|conversion]] or zero derivation.

==Functional classification==
[[Linguists]] recognize that the above list of eight or nine word classes is drastically simplified.<ref>{{cite web | last=Zwicky | first=Arnold | date=30 March 2006 | title=What part of speech is "the" | work=[[Language Log]] | url=http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002974.html | access-date=26 December 2009 | quote=...the school tradition about parts of speech is so desperately impoverished | archive-date=27 December 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091227122103/http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002974.html | url-status=live }}</ref> For example, "adverb" is to some extent a catch-all class that includes words with many different functions. Some have even argued that the most basic of category distinctions, that of nouns and verbs, is unfounded,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hopper |first1=P |last2=Thompson |first2=S |year=1985 |chapter=The Iconicity of the Universal Categories 'Noun' and 'Verbs' |title=Typological Studies in Language: Iconicity and Syntax |editor=John Haiman |volume=6 |pages=151–183 |location=Amsterdam |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company}}</ref> or not applicable to certain languages.<ref>{{cite book |last=Launey |first=Michel |year=1994 |title=Une grammaire omniprédicative: essai sur la morphosyntaxe du nahuatl classique |location=Paris |publisher=CNRS Editions}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Broschart |first=Jürgen |year=1997 |title=Why Tongan does it differently: Categorial Distinctions in a Language without Nouns and Verbs |journal=Linguistic Typology |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=123–165 |doi=10.1515/lity.1997.1.2.123|s2cid=121039930 }}</ref> Modern linguists have proposed many different schemes whereby the words of English or other languages are placed into more specific categories and subcategories based on a more precise understanding of their grammatical functions.

Common lexical category set defined by function may include the following (not all of them will necessarily be applicable in a given language):
* Categories that will usually be [[#Open and closed classes|open classes]]:
** [[Adjective]]s
** [[Adverb]]s
** [[Noun]]s
** [[Verb]]s (except auxiliary verbs)
** [[Interjection]]s
* Categories that will usually be closed classes:
** [[Auxiliary verb]]s
** [[Coverb]]s
** [[Grammatical conjunction|Conjunction]]s
** [[determiner (class)|Determiners]] ([[article (grammar)|Articles]], [[Quantifier (linguistics)|quantifiers]], [[demonstrative]]s, and [[possessive determiners|possessives]])
** [[Measure word]]s or [[classifier (linguistics)|classifier]]s
** [[Adposition]]s (prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions)
** [[Preverb]]s
** [[Pronoun]]s
** [[Cardinal n

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Statistical classification

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ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Categorization of data using statistics}} When classification is performed by a computer, statistical methods are normally used to develop the algorithm. Often, the individual observations are analyzed into a set of quantifiable properties, known variously as explanatory variables or ''features''. These properties may variously be categorical (e.g. "A", "B", "AB" or "O", for blood type), ordinal (e.g..."

{{Short description|Categorization of data using statistics}}
When [[classification]] is performed by a computer, statistical methods are normally used to develop the algorithm.

Often, the individual observations are analyzed into a set of quantifiable properties, known variously as [[explanatory variables]] or ''features''. These properties may variously be [[categorical data|categorical]] (e.g. "A", "B", "AB" or "O", for [[blood type]]), [[ordinal data|ordinal]] (e.g. "large", "medium" or "small"), [[integer|integer-valued]] (e.g. the number of occurrences of a particular word in an [[email]]) or [[real number|real-valued]] (e.g. a measurement of [[blood pressure]]). Other classifiers work by comparing observations to previous observations by means of a [[similarity function|similarity]] or [[metric (mathematics)|distance]] function.

An [[algorithm]] that implements classification, especially in a concrete implementation, is known as a '''classifier'''. The term "classifier" sometimes also refers to the mathematical [[function (mathematics)|function]], implemented by a classification algorithm, that maps input data to a category.

Terminology across fields is quite varied. In [[statistics]], where classification is often done with [[logistic regression]] or a similar procedure, the properties of observations are termed [[explanatory variable]]s (or [[independent variable]]s, regressors, etc.), and the categories to be predicted are known as outcomes, which are considered to be possible values of the [[dependent variable]]. In [[machine learning]], the observations are often known as ''instances'', the explanatory variables are termed ''features'' (grouped into a [[feature vector]]), and the possible categories to be predicted are ''classes''. Other fields may use different terminology: e.g. in [[community ecology]], the term "classification" normally refers to [[cluster analysis]].

==Relation to other problems==
[[Classification]] and clustering are examples of the more general problem of [[pattern recognition]], which is the assignment of some sort of output value to a given input value. Other examples are [[regression analysis|regression]], which assigns a real-valued output to each input; [[sequence labeling]], which assigns a class to each member of a sequence of values (for example, [[part of speech tagging]], which assigns a [[part of speech]] to each word in an input sentence); [[parsing]], which assigns a [[parse tree]] to an input sentence, describing the [[syntactic structure]] of the sentence; etc.

A common subclass of classification is [[probabilistic classification]]. Algorithms of this nature use [[statistical inference]] to find the best class for a given instance. Unlike other algorithms, which simply output a "best" class, probabilistic algorithms output a [[probability]] of the instance being a member of each of the possible classes. The best class is normally then selected as the one with the highest probability. However, such an algorithm has numerous advantages over non-probabilistic classifiers:
*It can output a confidence value associated with its choice (in general, a classifier that can do this is known as a ''confidence-weighted classifier'').
*Correspondingly, it can ''abstain'' when its confidence of choosing any particular output is too low.
*Because of the probabilities which are generated, probabilistic classifiers can be more effectively incorporated into larger machine-learning tasks, in a way that partially or completely avoids the problem of ''error propagation''.

==Frequentist procedures==

Early work on statistical classification was undertaken by [[Ronald Fisher|Fisher]],<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1111/j.1469-1809.1936.tb02137.x|title = The Use of Multiple Measurements in Taxonomic Problems|year = 1936|last1 = Fisher|first1 = R. A.|journal = [[Annals of Eugenics]]|volume = 7|issue = 2|pages = 179–188|hdl = 2440/15227|hdl-access = free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1111/j.1469-1809.1938.tb02189.x|title = The Statistical Utilization of Multiple Measurements|year = 1938|last1 = Fisher|first1 = R. A.|journal = [[Annals of Eugenics]]|volume = 8|issue = 4|pages = 376–386|hdl = 2440/15232|hdl-access = free}}</ref> in the context of two-group problems, leading to [[Fisher's linear discriminant]] function as the rule for assigning a group to a new observation.<ref name=G1977>Gnanadesikan, R. (1977) ''Methods for Statistical Data Analysis of Multivariate Observations'', Wiley. {{ISBN|0-471-30845-5}} (p. 83–86)</ref> This early work assumed that data-values within each of the two groups had a [[multivariate normal distribution]]. The extension of this same context to more than two groups has also been considered with a restriction imposed that the classification rule should be [[linear]].<ref name=G1977/><ref>[[C. R. Rao|Rao, C.R.]] (1952) ''Advanced Statistical Methods in Multivariate Analysis'', Wiley. (Section 9c)</ref> Later work for the multivariate normal distribution allowed the classifier to be [[nonlinear]]:<ref>[[T. W. Anderson|Anderson, T.W.]] (1958) ''An Introduction to Multivariate Statistical Analysis'', Wiley.</ref> several classification rules can be derived based on different adjustments of the [[Mahalanobis distance]], with a new observation being assigned to the group whose centre has the lowest adjusted distance from the observation.

==Bayesian procedures==

Unlike frequentist procedures, Bayesian classification procedures provide a natural way of taking into account any available information about the relative sizes of the different groups within the overall population.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1093/biomet/65.1.31|title = Bayesian cluster analysis|year = 1978|last1 = Binder|first1 = D. A.|journal = [[Biometrika]]|volume = 65|pages = 31–38}}</ref> Bayesian procedures tend to be computationally expensive and, in the days before [[Markov chain Monte Carlo]] computations were developed, approximations for Bayesian clustering rules were devised.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1093/biomet/68.1.275| title=Approximations to Bayesian clustering rules| year=1981| last1=Binder| first1=David A.| journal=[[Biometrika]]| volume=68| pages=275–285}}</ref>

Some Bayesian procedures involve the calculation of [[group-membership probabilities]]: these provide a more informative outcome than a simple attribution of a single group-label to each new observation.

==Binary and multiclass classification==
Classification can be thought of as two separate problems – [[binary classification]] and [[multiclass classification]]. In binary classification, a better understood task, only two classes are involved, whereas multiclass classification involves assigning an object to one of several classes.<ref>[[Sariel Har-Peled|Har-Peled, S.]], Roth, D., Zimak, D. (2003) "Constraint Classification for Multiclass Classification and Ranking." In: Becker, B., [[Sebastian Thrun|Thrun, S.]], Obermayer, K. (Eds) ''Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 15: Proceedings of the 2002 Conference'', MIT Press. {{ISBN|0-262-02550-7}}</ref> Since many classification methods have been developed specifically for binary classification, multiclass classification often requires the combined use of multiple binary classifiers.

== Feature vectors ==
{{main|Feature vector}}

Most algorithms describe an individual instance whose category is to be predicted using a [[feature vector]] of individual, measurable properties of the instance. Each property is termed a [[feature (pattern recognition)|feature]], also known in statistics as an [[explanatory variable]] (or [[independent variable]], although features may or may not be [[statistically independent]]). Features may variously be [[binary data|binary]] (e.g. "on" or "off"); [[categorical data|categorical]] (e.g. "A", "B", "AB" or "O", for [[blood type]]); [[ordinal data|ordinal]] (e.g. "large", "medium" or "small"); [[integer|integer-valued]] (e.g. the number of occurrences of a particular word in an email); or [[real number|real-valued]] (e.g. a measurement of blood pressure). If the instance is an image, the feature values might correspond to the pixels of an image; if the instance is a piece of text, the feature values might be occurrence frequencies of different words. Some algorithms work only in terms of discrete data and require that real-valued or integer-valued data be ''discretized'' into groups (e.g. less than 5, between 5 and 10, or greater than 10).

==Linear classifiers==
{{main|Linear classifier}}
A large number of [[algorithm]]s for classification can be phrased in terms of a [[linear function]] that assigns a score to each possible category ''k'' by [[linear combination|combining]] the feature vector of an instance with a vector of weights, using a [[dot product]]. The predicted category is the one with the highest score. This type of score function is known as a [[linear predictor function]] and has the following general form:
<math display=block>\operatorname{score}(\mathbf{X}_i, k) = \boldsymbol\beta_k \cdot \mathbf{X}_i,</math>
where '''X'''''i'' is the feature vector for instance ''i'', '''β'''''k'' is the vector of weights corresponding to category ''k'', and score('''X'''''i'', ''k'') is the score associated with assigning instance ''i'' to category ''k''. In [[discrete choice]] theory, where instances represent people and categories represent choices, the score is considered the [[utility]] associated with person ''i'' choosing category ''k''.

Algorithms with this basic setup are known as [[linear classifier]]s. What distinguishes them is the procedure for determining (training) the optimal weights/coefficients and the way that the score is interpreted.

Examples of such algorithms include
* {{annotated link|Logistic regression}}
** {{annotated link|Multinomial logistic regression}}
* {{annotated link|Probit regression}}
* The [[perceptron]] algorithm
* {{annotated link|Support vector machine}}
* {{annotated link|Linear discriminant analysis}}

==Algorithms==

Since no single form of classification is appropriate for all data sets, a large toolkit of classification algorithms has been developed. The most commonly used include:<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://builtin.com/data-science/tour-top-10-algorithms-machine-learning-newbies|title=A Tour of The Top 10 Algorithms for Machine Learning Newbies|date=2018-01-20|work=Built In|access-date=2019-06-10}}</ref>

* {{annotated link|Artificial neural networks}}
* {{annotated link|Boosting (machine learning)}}
* {{annotated link|Random forest}}
* {{annotated link|Genetic programming}}
** {{annotated link|Gene expression programming}}
** {{annotated link|Multi expression programming}}
** {{annotated link|Linear genetic programming}}
* {{annotated link|Kernel estimation|text=Variable kernel density estimation#Use for statistical classification}}
** {{annotated link|k-nearest neighbor algorithm|k-nearest neighbor}}
* {{annotated link|Learning vector quantization}}
* {{annotated link|Linear classifier}}
** {{annotated link|Fisher's linear discriminant}}
** {{annotated link|Logistic regression}}
** {{annotated link|Naive Bayes classifier}}
** {{annotated link|Perceptron}}
* {{annotated link|Quadratic classifier}}
* {{annotated link|Support vector machine}}
** {{annotated link|Least squares support vector machine}}

Choices between different possible algorithms are frequently made on the basis of quantitative [[Classification#Evaluation of accuracy|evaluation of accuracy]].

==Application domains==
{{see also|Cluster analysis#Applications}}
Classification has many applications. In some of these, it is employed as a [[data mining]] procedure, while in others more detailed statistical modeling is undertaken.

* {{annotated link|Biological classification}}
* {{annotated link|Biometric}} identification
* {{annotated link|Computer vision}}
** Medical image analysis and {{annotated link|medical imaging}}
** {{annotated link|Optical character recognition}}
** {{annotated link|Video tracking}}
* {{annotated link|Credit scoring}}
* {{annotated link|Document classification}}
* [[Drug discovery]] and {{annotated link|Drug development|development}}
** {{annotated link|Toxicogenomics}}
** {{annotated link|Quantitative structure-activity relationship}}
* {{annotated link|Geostatistics}}
* {{annotated link|Handwriting recognition}}
* Internet {{annotated link|search engines}}
* [[Micro-array classification]]
* {{annotated link|Pattern recognition}}
* {{annotated link|Recommender system}}
* {{annotated link|Speech recognition}}
* {{annotated link|Statistical natural language processing}}

{{More footnotes needed|date=January 2010}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Mathematics}}
{{colbegin}}
* {{annotated link|Artificial intelligence}}
* {{annotated link|Binary classification}}
* {{annotated link|Multiclass classification}}
* {{annotated link|Class membership probabilities}}
* {{annotated link|Classification rule}}
* {{annotated link|Compound term processing}}
* {{annotated link|Confusion matrix}}
* {{annotated link|Data mining}}
* {{annotated link|Data warehouse}}
* {{annotated link|Fuzzy logic}}
* {{annotated link|Information retrieval}}
* {{annotated link|List of datasets for machine learning research}}
* {{annotated link|Machine learning}}
* {{annotated link|Recommender system}}
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Commons category}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Statistics|analysis||state=expanded}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Statistical Classification}}
[[Category:Statistical classification| ]]
[[Category:Classification algorithms|*]]

Cognitive categorization

2025-11-07T14:30:14Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{short description|Organization of mental concepts}} {{for|categorization in general|Classification}} {{Use American English|date=November 2021}} {{Information science}} '''Categorization''' is a type of cognition involving conceptual differentiation between characteristics of conscious experience, such as objects, events, or ideas. It involves the abstraction and differentiation of aspects of experience by sorting and distinguis..."

{{short description|Organization of mental concepts}}
{{for|categorization in general|Classification}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2021}}
{{Information science}}

'''Categorization''' is a type of [[cognition]] involving conceptual differentiation between characteristics of conscious [[experience]], such as [[Object (philosophy)|objects]], events, or [[idea]]s. It involves the [[abstraction]] and differentiation of aspects of experience by sorting and distinguishing between groupings, through [[classification]] or [[typification]]<ref name="Croft2004ch4"/><ref>{{Cite book |title=Formal Approaches in Categorization |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-19048-0 |editor-last=Pothos |editor-first=Emmanuel M. |pages=1 |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Wills |editor-first2=Andy J.}}</ref> on the basis of traits, features, similarities or other criteria that are [[Universal (metaphysics)|universal]] to the group. Categorization is considered one of the most fundamental [[cognitive abilities]], and it is studied particularly by [[psychology]] and [[cognitive linguistics]].

Categorization is sometimes considered synonymous with classification (cf., [[Classification (general theory)#Synonyms and near-synonyms|Classification synonyms]]). Categorization and classification allow humans to organize things, objects, and ideas that exist around them and simplify their understanding of the world.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last1=McGarty |first1=Craig |title=Social Categorization |date=2015 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780080970868240919 |encyclopedia=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |pages=186–191 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.24091-9 |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5 |access-date=2022-11-10 |last2=Mavor |first2=Kenneth I. |last3=Skorich |first3=Daniel P. |url-access=subscription |archive-date=2022-12-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208015513/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780080970868240919 |url-status=live }}</ref> Categorization is something that humans and other organisms ''do'': "doing the right thing with the right '''''kind''''' of thing." The activity of categorizing things can be nonverbal or verbal. For humans, both concrete objects and abstract ideas are recognized, differentiated, and understood through categorization. Objects are usually categorized for some adaptive or pragmatic purposes.

Categorization is [[symbol grounding problem|grounded]] in the features that distinguish the category's members from nonmembers. Categorization is important in learning, prediction, [[inference]], [[decision making]], language, and many forms of organisms' interaction with their environments.

== Overview ==

'''Categories''' are distinct collections of concrete or abstract instances (category members) that are considered equivalent by the cognitive system. Using category knowledge requires one to access [[mental representation]]s that define the core features of category members (cognitive psychologists refer to these category-specific mental representations as [[concept]]s).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=Gregory L. |last2=Medin |first2=Douglas L. |date=1985 |title=The role of theories in conceptual coherence. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0033-295X.92.3.289 |journal=Psychological Review |language=en |volume=92 |issue=3 |pages=289–316 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.92.3.289 |pmid=4023146 |issn=1939-1471|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Markman |first1=Arthur B. |last2=Ross |first2=Brian H. |date=2003 |title=Category use and category learning. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.592 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |language=en |volume=129 |issue=4 |pages=592–613 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.592 |pmid=12848222 |issn=1939-1455|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

To categorization theorists, the categorization of objects is often considered using [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomies]] with three hierarchical levels of [[abstraction]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal |last1=Rosch |first1=Eleanor |last2=Mervis |first2=Carolyn B |last3=Gray |first3=Wayne D |last4=Johnson |first4=David M |last5=Boyes-Braem |first5=Penny |date=1976-07-01 |title=Basic objects in natural categories |journal=Cognitive Psychology |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=382–439 |doi=10.1016/0010-0285(76)90013-X |s2cid=5612467 |issn=0010-0285}}</ref> For example, a plant could be identified at a high level of abstraction by simply labeling it a flower, a medium level of abstraction by specifying that the flower is a rose, or a low level of abstraction by further specifying this particular rose as a dog rose. Categories in a taxonomy are related to one another via class inclusion, with the highest level of abstraction being the most inclusive and the lowest level of abstraction being the least inclusive.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The three levels of abstraction are as follows:
* '''Superordinate level, Genus''' (e.g., Flower) - The highest and most inclusive level of abstraction. Exhibits the highest degree of generality and the lowest degree of within-category similarity.<ref name="Markman, A. B. 1997">{{Cite journal |last1=Markman |first1=Arthur B. |last2=Wisniewski |first2=Edward J. |year=1997 |title=Similar and different: The differentiation of basic-level categories. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0278-7393.23.1.54 |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |language=en |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=54–70 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.23.1.54 |s2cid=18585288 |issn=1939-1285|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* '''Basic Level, Species''' (e.g., Rose) - The middle level of abstraction. Rosch and colleagues (1976) suggest the basic level to be the most cognitively efficient.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Basic level categories exhibit high within-category ''similarities'' and high between-category ''dissimilarities''. Furthermore, the basic level is the most inclusive level at which category exemplars share a generalized identifiable shape.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Adults most-often use basic level object names, and children learn basic object names first.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
* '''Subordinate level''' (e.g., Dog Rose) - The lowest level of abstraction. Exhibits the highest degree of specificity and within-category similarity.<ref name="Markman, A. B. 1997"/>

== Beginning of categorization ==

The essential issue in studying categorization is how conceptual differentiation between characteristics of conscious experience begins in young, inexperienced organisms. Growing experimental data show evidence of differentiation between characteristics of objects and events in newborns and even in foetuses during the prenatal period.<ref name="Val Danilov 2023 Origin of Perception">{{Cite journal |last=Val Danilov |first=Igor |date=2023 |title=Low-Frequency Oscillations for Nonlocal Neuronal Coupling in Shared Intentionality Before and After Birth: Toward the Origin of Perception |url=https://www.lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-04-192 |journal=OBM Neurobiology |language=en |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2304192 |doi-access=free |archive-date=2023-12-11 |access-date=2023-12-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211033632/https://lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-04-192 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Val Danilov |first1=Igor |last2=Mihailova |first2=Sandra |date= 2022|title=A New Perspective on Assessing Cognition in Children through Estimating Shared Intentionality |journal=Journal of Intelligence |language=en |volume=10 |issue=2 |page=21 |doi=10.3390/jintelligence10020021 |issn=2079-3200 |pmc=9036231 |pmid=35466234 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This development succeeds in organisms that only demonstrate simple reflexes (see articles on the [[binding problem]], [[cognition]], [[cognitive development]], [[infant cognitive development]], [[multisensory integration]], and [[perception]]). For their nervous systems, the environment is a cacophony of sensory stimuli: electromagnetic waves, chemical interactions, and pressure fluctuations.<ref>Treisman, A. (1999). "Solutions to the binding problem: Progress through controversy and convergence." ''Neuron.'' 1999; 24: 105-125.</ref>

Categorization thought involves the abstraction and differentiation of aspects of experience that rely upon such power of mind as [[intentionality]] and [[perception]]. The problem is that these young organisms should already grasp the abilities of intentionality and perception to categorize the environment.<ref name="Val Danilov 2023 Origin of Perception" /> Intentionality and perception already require their ability to recognise objects (or events), i.e., to identify objects by the [[sensory system]].<ref>Val Danilov, I. and Mihailova, S. (2021). "Neuronal Coherence Agent for Shared Intentionality: A Hypothesis of Neurobiological Processes Occurring during Social Interaction." ''OBM Neurobiology'' 2021;5(4):26; doi:10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2104113</ref> This is a vicious circle: categorization needs intentionality and perception, which only appear in the categorized environment. So, the young, inexperienced organism does not have abstract thinking and cannot independently accomplish conceptual differentiation between characteristics of conscious experience if it solves the categorization problem alone.

Studying the origins of social cognition in child development, developmental psychologist [[Michael Tomasello]] developed the notion of [[Shared intentionality]] to account for unaware processes during social learning after birth to explain processes in shaping [[intentionality]].<ref name="Tomasello 2019">Tomasello, M. (2019). "Becoming human: A theory of ontogeny." Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: [[Harvard University Press]].</ref> Further, Latvian professor Igor Val Danilov expanded this concept to the intrauterine period by introducing a Mother-Fetus Neurocognitive model:<ref>Val Danilov, Igor (2024). "Child Cognitive Development with the Maternal Heartbeat: A Mother-Fetus Neurocognitive Model and Architecture for Bioengineering Systems". In: Ben Ahmed, M., Boudhir, A.A., Abd Elhamid Attia, H.F., Eštoková, A., Zelenáková, M. (eds) ''Information Systems and Technological Advances for Sustainable Development. DATA 2024. Lecture Notes in Information Systems and Organisation,'' vol 71. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-75329-9_24 </ref> a hypothesis of neurophysiological processes occurring during [[Shared intentionality]].<ref name="Val Danilov 2023 Origin of Perception" /> The hypothesis attempts to explain the beginning of cognitive development in organisms at different levels of bio-system complexity, from interpersonal dynamics to neuronal interactions.<ref>Val Danilov, I. (2023). "Theoretical Grounds of Shared Intentionality for Neuroscience in Developing Bioengineering Systems." ''OBM Neurobiology'' 2023; 7(1): 156; doi:10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2301156</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Val Danilov |first=Igor |date=2023 |title=Shared Intentionality Modulation at the Cell Level: Low-Frequency Oscillations for Temporal Coordination in Bioengineering Systems |url=https://www.lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-04-185 |journal=OBM Neurobiology |language=en |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2304185 |doi-access=free |archive-date=2023-12-10 |access-date=2023-12-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210001325/https://lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-04-185 |url-status=live }}</ref> Evidence in neuroscience supports the hypothesis. Hyperscanning research studies observed inter-brain activity under conditions without communication in pairs while subjects were solving the shared cognitive problem, and they registered an increased inter-brain activity in contrast to the condition when subjects solved a similar problem alone.<ref>Liu, J., Zhang, R., Xie, E. et al. (2023). "Shared intentionality modulates interpersonal neural synchronization at the establishment of communication system." ''Commun Biol'' 6, 832 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-023-05197-z </ref><ref>Painter, D.R., Kim, J.J., Renton, A.I., Mattingley, J.B. (2021). "Joint control of visually guided actions involves concordant increases in behavioural and neural coupling." ''Commun Biol.'' 2021; 4: 816.</ref><ref>Hu, Y., Pan, Y., Shi, X., Cai, Q., Li, X., Cheng, X. (2018). "Inter-brain synchrony and cooperation context in interactive decision making." ''Biol Psychol.'' 2018; 133: 54-62.</ref><ref>Fishburn, F.A., Murty, V.P., Hlutkowsky, C.O., MacGillivray, C.E., Bemis, L.M., Murphy, M.E., et al. (2018). "Putting our heads together: Interpersonal neural synchronization as a biological mechanism for shared intentionality." ''Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci.'' 2018; 13: 841-849.</ref><ref>Szymanski, C., Pesquita, A., Brennan, A.A., Perdikis, D., Enns, J.T., Brick, T.R., et al. (2017). "Teams on the same wavelength perform better: Inter-brain phase synchronization constitutes a neural substrate for social facilitation." ''Neuroimage.'' 2017; 152: 425-436.</ref><ref>Astolfi, L., Toppi, J., De Vico Fallani, F., Vecchiato, G., Salinari, S., Mattia, D., et al. (2010). "Neuroelectrical hyperscanning measures simultaneous brain activity in humans." ''Brain Topogr.'' 2010; 23: 243-256.</ref> These data show that collaborative interaction without sensory cues can emerge in mother-child dyads, providing [[Shared intentionality]].<ref name="Val Danilov 2023 Origin of Perception" /> It shows the mode to cognize at the stage without communication and abstract thinking.
The significance of this knowledge is that it can reveal the new direction to study [[consciousness]] since the latter refers to awareness of internal and external existence relying on [[intentionality]], [[perception]] and categorization of the environment.

== Theories ==

=== Classical view ===
{{main|Categories (Aristotle)}}
The '''classical theory of categorization''', is a term used in [[cognitive linguistics]] to denote the approach to categorization that appears in Plato and Aristotle and that has been highly influential and dominant in Western culture, particularly in philosophy, linguistics and psychology.<ref name="Taylor1995ch2"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lakoff |first=George |title=Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1987 |isbn=0-226-46803-8 |location=Chicago |oclc=14001013 |author-link=George Lakoff}}</ref> Aristotle's categorical method of analysis was transmitted to the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] medieval university through Porphyry's [[Isagoge]]. The classical view of categories can be summarized into three assumptions: a category can be described as a list of [[necessary and sufficient condition|necessary and sufficient]] features that its membership must have, categories are discrete in that they have clearly defined boundaries (either an element belongs to one or not, with no possibilities in between), and all the members of a category have the same status. (There are no members of the category which belong more than others).<ref name="Croft2004ch4"/><ref name="Embley2006">{{Cite book |title=Conceptual Modeling: ER 2006: 25th International Conference on Conceptual Modeling, Tucson, AZ, USA, November 6-9, 2006: proceedings |publisher=Springer |editor1=David W. Embley |editor2=A. Olivé |editor3=Sudha Ram |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-540-47227-8 |location=Berlin |oclc=262693303}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=November 2022}}<ref name="Taylor1995ch2">{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=John R. |title=Linguistic Categorization: Prototypes in Linguistic Theory |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1995 |isbn=0-19-870012-1 |edition=2nd |location=Oxford [England] |pages=21–24 |oclc=32546314}}</ref> In the classical view, categories need to be clearly defined, mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive; this way, any entity in the given classification universe belongs unequivocally to one, and only one, of the proposed categories.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}

The classical view of categories first appeared in the context of [[Western Philosophy]] in the work of [[Plato]], who, in his [[Statesman (dialogue)|Statesman]] dialogue, introduces the approach of grouping objects based on their similar [[Property (philosophy)|properties]]. This approach was further explored and systematized by [[Aristotle]] in his [[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]] treatise, where he analyzes the differences between [[Class (philosophy)|class]]es and [[Object (philosophy)|object]]s. Aristotle also applied intensively the classical categorization scheme in his approach to the classification of living beings (which uses the technique of applying successive narrowing questions such as "Is it an animal or vegetable?", "How many feet does it have?", "Does it have fur or feathers?", "Can it fly?"...), establishing this way the basis for [[natural kind|natural]] [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]].

Examples of the use of the classical view of categories can be found in the western philosophical works of [[Descartes]], [[Blaise Pascal]], [[Spinoza]] and [[John Locke]], and in the 20th century in [[Bertrand Russell]], [[G.E. Moore]], the [[logical positivists]]. It has been a cornerstone of [[analytic philosophy]] and its [[conceptual analysis]], with more recent formulations proposed in the 1990s by [[Frank Cameron Jackson]] and [[Christopher Peacocke]].<ref name="Pashler2012">
{{Cite book |last=Pashler |first=Harold |title=Encyclopedia of the Mind |date=2012-12-10 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-5063-1938-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Frank |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/3190 |title=From Metaphysics to Ethics: A Defence of Conceptual Analysis |date=2000-03-09 |publisher=Oxford University PressOxford |isbn=978-0-19-825061-6 |edition=1 |language=en |doi=10.1093/0198250614.001.0001 |archive-date=2022-11-10 |access-date=2022-11-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110025212/https://academic.oup.com/book/3190 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Peacocke |first=Christopher |url=https://direct.mit.edu/books/book/4676/A-Study-of-Concepts |title=A Study of Concepts |date=1995-09-25 |language=en |doi=10.7551/mitpress/6537.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-262-28131-7 |archive-date=2022-11-10 |access-date=2022-11-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110025212/https://direct.mit.edu/books/book/4676/A-Study-of-Concepts |url-status=live }}</ref> At the beginning of the 20th century, the question of categories was introduced into the empirical social sciences by Durkheim and Mauss, whose pioneering work has been revisited in contemporary scholarship.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Durkheim |first1=Emile |title=quelques formes primitives de classification |last2=Mauss |first2=Marcel |last3=Durkheim |first3=Émile |date=2002|publisher=J.-M. Tremblay |isbn=1-55441-218-8 |series=Classiques des sciences sociales. |location=Chicoutimi|doi=10.1522/cla.due.deq }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alejandro |first=Audrey|date=January 2021 |title=How to Problematise Categories: Building the Methodological Toolbox for Linguistic Reflexivity|journal=International Journal of Qualitative Methods |volume=20|page=160940692110555 |article-number=16094069211055572 |doi=10.1177/16094069211055572 |s2cid=244420443 |issn=1609-4069|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The classical model of categorization has been used at least since the 1960s from linguists of the [[structural semantics]] paradigm, by [[Jerrold Katz]] and [[Jerry Fodor]] in 1963, which in turn have influenced its adoption also by psychologists like [[Allan M. Collins]] and [[M. Ross Quillian]].<ref name="Croft2004ch4">{{Cite book |last1=Croft |first1=William

Category mistake

2025-11-07T14:28:50Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{for|the fallacy|fallacy of composition|fallacy of division}} {{short description|Ascribing an impossible property to a thing}} A '''category mistake''' (or '''category error''', '''categorical mistake''', or '''mistake of category''') is a semantic or ontological error in which things belonging to a particular category are presented as if they belong to a different category,<ref>{{cite book |last=Blackburn |first=Simon |author-link=Simon Blackburn |da..."

{{for|the fallacy|fallacy of composition|fallacy of division}}
{{short description|Ascribing an impossible property to a thing}}

A '''category mistake''' (or '''category error''', '''categorical mistake''', or '''mistake of category''') is a [[semantic]] or [[ontology|ontological]] error in which things belonging to a particular category are presented as if they belong to a different category,<ref>{{cite book |last=Blackburn |first=Simon |author-link=Simon Blackburn |date=1994 |title=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=58}}</ref> or, alternatively, a property is ascribed to a thing that could not possibly have that property. An example is a person learning that the game of [[cricket]] involves team spirit, and after being given a demonstration of each player's role, asking which player performs the "team spirit".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lacewing |first1=Michael |title=Philosophy for A Level: Metaphysics of God and Metaphysics of Mind |date=14 July 2017 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-351-67460-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KAkqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA208 |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
[[Aloysius Martinich|Al Martinich]] claims that the philosopher [[Thomas Hobbes]] was the first to discuss a propensity among philosophers mistakenly to combine words taken from different and incompatible categories.<ref>Martinich, A. P., ''Philosophical Writing: An Introduction'', Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1989; third edition, Blackwell Publishers, 2005, page 2</ref>

The term "category-mistake" was introduced by [[Gilbert Ryle]] in his book ''[[The Concept of Mind]]'' (1949) to remove what he argued to be a confusion over the nature of mind born from [[Descartes|Cartesian]] [[metaphysics]].<ref>Philosopher [[Ofra Magidor]] writes, "As far as I can tell, this is the first time the concept of a category mistake is referred to using this label." (''Category Mistakes'', Oxford University Press, 2013, [https://books.google.com/books?id=v35pAgAAQBAJ&q=the%20first%20time%20the%20concept%20of%20a%20category%20mistake%20is%20referred%20to%20using%20this%20label page 10, footnote 21])</ref><ref>Ryle consistently hyphenates "category-mistake". See [https://archive.org/details/conceptofmind00gilb/page/330/mode/2up?q=%22category+mistake%22 the index].</ref> Ryle argues that it is a mistake to treat the mind as an object made of an immaterial substance because predications of substance are not meaningful for a collection of dispositions and capacities.<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ryle/ | title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | chapter=Gilbert Ryle | year=2022 | publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University }}</ref>

The phrase is introduced in the first chapter.<ref name="ryle-concept">{{cite book |last=Ryle |first=Gilbert |author-link=Gilbert Ryle |date=1949 |title=The Concept of Mind |page=16 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226732961 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryl-ezY6Mn8C&pg=PA16}}</ref> The first example is of a visitor to [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. The visitor, upon viewing the [[Colleges of the University of Oxford|colleges]] and [[Bodleian Library|library]], reportedly inquires, "But where is the University?" The visitor's mistake is presuming that a University is part of the category "units of physical infrastructure", rather than that of an "institution". In his second example, a child witnesses the march-past of a division of soldiers. After having had battalions, batteries, squadrons, etc. pointed out, the child asks when the division is going to appear. He is told that "the march-past was not a parade of battalions, batteries, squadrons ''and'' a division; it was a parade of the battalions, batteries and squadrons ''of'' a division" (Ryle's italics). His third example is of a foreigner being shown a cricket match. After being pointed out batsmen, bowlers and fielders, the foreigner asks: "who is left to contribute the famous element of team-spirit?"<ref name="ryle-concept" /> He goes on to argue that the [[Cartesian dualism]] of mind and body rests on a category mistake.{{page needed|date=October 2024}}

==Application==
[[Massimo Pigliucci]], Professor of Philosophy at the [[City University of New York]], argues that the "[[hard problem of consciousness]]", as expressed by [[David Chalmers]] and others, rests on a category mistake, in that explaining "experience" is being incorrectly treated as different from explaining the underlying biological processes which generate experience.<ref>Pigliucci, M., [https://philosophynow.org/issues/99/What_Hard_Problem What Hard Problem?], ''Philosophy Now'', 2013, accessed on 5 February 2025</ref>

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Apples and oranges}}
* {{annotated link|Catachresis}}
* {{annotated link|Colorless green ideas sleep furiously}}
* {{annotated link|Not even wrong}}
* {{annotated link|Synecdoche}}
* {{annotated link|The Concept of Mind|''The Concept of Mind''}}
* {{annotated link|Type error|Type error (computer science)}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Category Mistake}}
[[Category:Informal fallacies]]
[[Category:Philosophy of language]]
[[Category:Arguments in philosophy of mind]]
[[Category:Error]]

Stoic categories

2025-11-07T14:27:30Z

ArianTazwer: Created page with "{{Short description|Virtue-focused philosophical system}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}} A bust of [[Zeno of Citium, considered the founder of Stoicism]] '''Stoicism''' is a Hellenistic philosophy that flourished in ancient Greece and Rome.<ref>{{cite web|title=Stoicism|website=Britannica|author=Jason Lewis Saunders|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Stoicism..."

{{Short description|Virtue-focused philosophical system}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}

[[File:Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico (Napoli, 1969) - BEIC 6353768.jpg|thumb|A bust of [[Zeno of Citium]], considered the founder of Stoicism]]

'''Stoicism''' is a [[Hellenistic philosophy]] that flourished in [[ancient Greece]] and [[ancient Rome|Rome]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Stoicism|website=Britannica|author=Jason Lewis Saunders|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Stoicism|access-date=2 January 2022|archive-date=28 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628193627/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Stoicism|url-status=live}}</ref> The Stoics believed that the universe operated according to reason, ''i.e.'' by a God which is immersed in nature itself.<ref name="shenefeltwhite74">{{Harvnb|Shenefelt|White|2013|p=74}}</ref> Of all the schools of ancient philosophy, Stoicism made the greatest claim to being utterly systematic.{{sfn|Long|Sedley|1987|p=160}}

The Stoics provided a unified account of the world, constructed from ideals of [[logic]], [[monism|monistic]] physics, and [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic]] ethics.<ref>Aetius, Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta, 2.35</ref> These three ideals constitute virtue, which is necessary for 'living a well-reasoned life', seeing as they are all parts of a [[Logos|''logos'']], or philosophical discourse, which includes the mind's rational dialogue with itself.{{sfn|Long|Sedley|1987|p=161}} Its logic focuses on reasoning through [[Proposition|propositions]], [[Argument|arguments]], and the differentiation between truth and falsehood. Its ethics centers on virtue as the highest good, cultivating emotional [[self-control]] and rational judgment to attain ''[[eudaimonia]]'', while viewing passions as misguided judgments to be mastered.

Stoicism was founded in the [[ancient Agora of Athens]] by [[Zeno of Citium]] around 300 BCE, and flourished throughout the [[Greco-Roman world]] until the 3rd century CE. Stoicism emerged from the [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynic]] tradition and was popularized through public teaching at the [[Stoa Poikile]], a painted [[colonnade]]. Among its adherents was Roman Emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]].

Along with Aristotelian [[term logic]], the system of [[propositional logic]] developed by the Stoics was one of the two great systems of logic in the classical world. It was largely built and shaped by [[Chrysippus]], the third head of the Stoic school in the 3rd century BCE. Chrysippus's logic differed from [[term logic]] because it was based on the analysis of [[proposition]]s rather than terms. Stoicism experienced a decline after [[Christianity]] became the state religion in the 4th century CE, although [[Neoplatonism and Gnosticism|Gnosticism]] lingered and incorporated pure elements of Stoicism and [[Platonism|Platoism]].

Since then, it has seen revivals, notably in the [[Renaissance philosophy|Renaissance]] ([[Neostoicism]]) and in the contemporary era.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Becker|first1=Lawrence C.|author-link=Lawrence C. Becker|title=A New Stoicism|date=2001|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|location=Princeton|isbn=978-1400822447|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbqFt3RPsuQC|access-date=10 August 2017|archive-date=8 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708093213/https://books.google.com/books?id=NbqFt3RPsuQC|url-status=live}}</ref> Its influence extended to Roman thinkers like [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] and [[Epictetus]] and later influenced Christianity and the Renaissance Neostoicism movement. Stoicism shaped subsequent developments in logic and inspired modern [[Cognitive therapy|cognitive therapies]].

==History==
{{seealso|List of Stoic philosophers}}
The name ''Stoicism'' derives from the ''[[Stoa Poikile]]'' ([[Ancient Greek]]: ἡ ποικίλη στοά), or "painted porch", a [[colonnade]] decorated with mythic and historical battle scenes on the north side of the [[Ancient Agora of Athens|Agora]] in [[Athens]] where [[Zeno of Citium]] and his followers gathered to discuss their ideas, near the end of the fourth century BCE.<ref>{{cite book | last = Becker | first = Lawrence | title = A History of Western Ethics | publisher = Routledge | location = New York | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-0415968256 |page=27}}</ref> Unlike the [[Epicureans]], Zeno chose to teach his philosophy in a public space. Stoicism was originally known as Zenonism. However, this name was soon dropped, probably because the Stoics did not consider their founders to be perfectly wise and to avoid the risk of the philosophy becoming a [[cult of personality]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Stoicism and the Art of Happiness|last=Robertson|first=Donald|publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]]| year= 2018| location=Great Britain}}</ref>

Zeno's ideas developed from those of the [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynics]] (brought to him by [[Crates of Thebes]]), whose founding father, [[Antisthenes]], had been a disciple of [[Socrates]]. Zeno's most influential successor was [[Chrysippus]], who followed [[Cleanthes]] as leader of the school, and was responsible for molding what is now called Stoicism.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chrysippus {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/chrysippus/ |access-date=31 August 2023 |archive-date=9 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009152625/https://iep.utm.edu/chrysippus/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire<ref>{{cite book|title=These Were the Greeks|last=Amos|first=H.|publisher=Dufour Editions|year=1982|isbn=978-0802312754|location=Chester Springs|oclc=9048254}}</ref> to the point where, in the words of [[Gilbert Murray]], "nearly all the [[diadochi|successors of Alexander]] [...] professed themselves Stoics".<ref>Gilbert Murray, ''The Stoic Philosophy'' (1915), p. 25. In Bertrand Russell, ''A History of Western Philosophy'' (1946).</ref> Later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the universe, within which we are active participants.

Scholars<ref>Sedley, D. (2003) The School, from Zeno to Arius Didymus. In: B. Inwood (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics. Cambridge University Press.</ref> usually divide the history of Stoicism into three phases: the Early Stoa, from Zeno's founding to [[Antipater of Tarsus|Antipater]]; the Middle Stoa, including [[Panaetius]] and [[Posidonius]]; and the Late Stoa, including [[Gaius Musonius Rufus|Musonius Rufus]], [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], [[Epictetus]], and [[Marcus Aurelius]]. No complete works survived from the first two phases of Stoicism. Only Roman texts from the Late Stoa survived.<ref>A.A.Long, ''Hellenistic Philosophy'', p. 115.</ref>

==Logic==
{{See also|History of logic}}
[[File:Detail. Marble bust of Chrysippus. Roman copy (1st century CE) of an original (c. 200 BCE). Altes Museum, Berlin, Germany.jpg|thumb|[[Chrysippus]], the third leader of the Stoic school, wrote more than 300 books on logic. His works were lost, but an outline of his logical system may be reconstructed from fragments and testimony.]]
{{anchor|logic}}

For the Stoics, logic (''logike'') was the part of philosophy which examined reason (''logos'').<ref name="sellars55">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=55}}</ref> To achieve a happy life—a life worth living—requires logical thought.<ref name="shenefeltwhite74"/> The Stoics held that an understanding of ethics was impossible without logic.<ref name="shenefeltwhite78">{{Harvnb|Shenefelt|White|2013|p=78}}</ref> In the words of Inwood, the Stoics believed that:<ref>{{Harvnb|Inwood|2003|p=229}}</ref>
{{blockquote|Logic helps a person see what is the case, reason effectively about practical affairs, stand his or her ground amid confusion, differentiate the certain from the probable, and so forth.}}

To the Stoics, logic was a wide field of knowledge which included the study of [[philosophy of language|language]], [[grammar]], [[rhetoric]] and [[epistemology]].<ref name="sellars55"/> However, all of these fields were interrelated, and the Stoics developed their logic (or "dialectic") within the context of their theory of language and epistemology.<ref name="otoolejennings400">{{Harvnb|O'Toole|Jennings|2004|p=400}}</ref>

The Stoic tradition of logic originated in the 4th-century BCE in a different school of philosophy known as the [[Megarian school]].<ref name="bobzien880">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1996a|p=880}}</ref> It was two dialecticians of this school, [[Diodorus Cronus]] and his pupil [[Philo the Dialectician|Philo]], who developed their own theories of [[Modal logic|modalities]] and of [[Material conditional|conditional propositions]].<ref name="bobzien880"/> The founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium, studied under the Megarians, and he was said to have been a fellow pupil with Philo.<ref name="sellars56">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=56}}</ref>

However, the outstanding figure in the development of Stoic logic was [[Chrysippus|Chrysippus of Soli]] (c. 279 – c. 206 BCE), the third head of the Stoic school.<ref name="bobzien880"/> Chrysippus shaped much of Stoic logic as we know it, creating a system of propositional logic.<ref name="shenefeltwhite80">{{Harvnb|Shenefelt|White|2013|p=80}}</ref> The logical writings by Chrysippus are, however, almost entirely lost,<ref name="bobzien880"/> instead his system has to be reconstructed from the partial and incomplete accounts preserved in the works of later authors.<ref name="sellars56"/>

=== Assertibles ===
The smallest unit in Stoic logic is an ''assertible'' ({{transliteration|grc|axiomata}}), a proposition which is either true or false and which either affirms or denies.<ref name="sellars58">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=58}}</ref> Examples of assertibles include "it is night", "it is raining this afternoon", and "no one is walking."<ref name="sellars58-9">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|pp=58–59}}</ref><ref name="bobzien102">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=102}}</ref> Assertibles have a truth-value such that they are only true or false depending on when it was expressed (e.g. the assertible "it is night" will only be true if it is true that it is night).{{sfn|Bobzien|1999|pp=95}} The Stoics catalogued these simple assertibles according to whether they are affirmative or negative, and whether they are definite or indefinite (or both).<ref name="bobzien97-8">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|pp=97–98}}</ref>

====Compound assertibles ====
{| class="wikitable floatright"
! colspan="3" style="background:white;text-align:center;" |
Logical connectives
|-
! Name
! Example
|-
|style="white-space:nowrap;" | [[Material conditional|Conditional]]
|style="white-space:nowrap;" | '''if''' it is day, it is light
|-
|style="white-space:nowrap;" | [[Logical conjunction|Conjunction]]
|style="white-space:nowrap;" | it is day '''and''' light
|-
|style="white-space:nowrap;" | [[Logical disjunction|Disjunction]]
|style="white-space:nowrap;" | '''either''' it is day '''or''' night
|-
|style="white-space:nowrap;" | Pseudo-conditional
|style="white-space:nowrap;" | '''since''' it is day, it is light
|-
|style="white-space:nowrap;" | [[Causality|Causal]]
|style="white-space:nowrap;" | '''because''' it is day, it is light
|-
|style="white-space:nowrap;" | Comparative
|style="white-space:nowrap;" | '''more likely''' it is day '''than''' night
|}
Compound assertibles can be built up from simple ones through the use of [[logical connectives]], which examine choice and consequence such as "if ... then", "either ... or", and "not both".<ref name="shenefeltwhite78"/><ref name="shenefeltwhite79">{{Harvnb|Shenefelt|White|2013|p=79}}</ref> Chrysippus seems to have been responsible for introducing the three main types of connectives: the [[Material conditional|conditional]] ('''if'''), [[Logical conjunction|conjunctive]] ('''and'''), and [[Logical disjunction|disjunctive]] ('''or''').<ref name="bobzien105">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=105}}</ref> A typical conditional takes the form of "if p then q";<ref name="bobzien106">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=106}}</ref> whereas a conjunction takes the form of "both p and q";<ref name="bobzien106"/> and a disjunction takes the form of "either p or q".<ref name="bobzien109">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=109}}</ref> The '''or''' they used is [[Exclusive or|exclusive]], unlike the [[Logical disjunction|inclusive or]] generally used in modern formal logic.<ref>{{Harvnb|Inwood|2003|p=231}}</ref> These connectives are combined with the use of '''not''' for negation.<ref name="sellars60">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=60}}</ref> Thus the conditional can take the following four forms:<ref name="bobzien129">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=129}}</ref> 1) "If p, then q" 2) "If not p, then q" 3) "If p, then not q" 4) "If not p, then not q." Later Stoics added more connectives: the pseudo-conditional took the form of "since p then q"; and the causal assertible took the form of "because p then q".{{Ref label|A|a|none}} There was also a comparative (or dissertive): "more/less (likely) p than q".<ref name="bobzien109-111">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|pp=109–111}}</ref>

==== Modal assertibles ====
Assertibles can also be distinguished by their [[Modal logic|modal properties]]{{Ref label|B|b|none}}—whether they are possible, impossible, necessary, or non-necessary.<ref name="sellars59">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=59}}</ref> In this, the Stoics were building on an earlier Megarian debate initiated by Diodorus Cronus.<ref name="sellars59"/> Diodorus had defined ''possibility'' in a way which seemed to adopt a form of [[fatalism]].<ref name="kenny136">{{Harvnb|Adamson|2015|p=136}}</ref> Diodorus defined ''possible'' as "that which either is or will be true".<ref name="ancientlogic">{{harvnb|Bobzien|2020}}</ref> Thus, there are no forever unrealised possibilities, whatever is possible is or one day will be true.<ref name="kenny136"/> His pupil Philo, rejecting this, defined ''possible'' as "that which is capable of being true by the proposition's own nature",<ref name="ancientlogic"/> thus a statement like "this piece of wood can burn" is ''possible'', even if it spent its entire existence on the bottom of the ocean.<ref name="kenny138">{{Harvnb|Adamson|2015|p=138}}</ref> Chrysippus, on the other hand, was a causal determinist: he thought that true causes inevitably give rise to their effects and that all things arise in this way.<ref name="adamson58">{{Harvnb|Adamson|2015|p=58}}</ref> But he was not a logical determinist or fatalist: he wanted to distinguish between possible and necessary truths.<ref name="adamson58"/> Thus, he took a middle position between Diodorus and Philo, combining elements of both their modal systems.<ref name="bobzien120">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=120}}</ref> Chrysippus's set of Stoic modal definitions was as follows:<ref name="bobzien118">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=118}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1.0em auto;"
! colspan="2" style="background:white;text-align:center;" | Modal definitions
|-
! Name
! Definition
|-
| style="white-space:nowrap;" | ''possible''
| style="white-space:wrap;" | An assertible which can become true '''and''' is not hindered by external things from becoming true
|-
| style="white-space:nowrap;" | ''impossible''
| style="white-space:wrap;" | An assertible which cannot become true '''or''' which can become true but is hindered by external things from becoming true
|-
| style="white-space:nowrap;" | ''necessary''
| style="white-space:wrap;" | An assertible which (when true) cannot become false '''or''' which can become false but is hindered by external things from becoming false
|-
| style="white-space:nowrap;" | ''non-necessary''
| style="white-space:wrap;" | An assertible which can become false '''and''' is not hindered by external things from becoming false
|}

=== Arguments ===
In Stoic logic, an argument is defined as a compound or system of premises and a conclusion.<ref name="bobzien121"> {{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=121}}</ref> A typical Stoic [[syllogism]] is: "If it is day, it is light; It is day; Therefore it is light".<ref name="bobzien121"/> It has a non-simple assertible for the first premise ("If it is day, it is light") and a simple assertible for the second premise ("It is day").<ref name="bobzien121"/> Stoic logic also uses variables that stand for propositions to generalize arguments of the same form.<ref name="bobzien881">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1996a|p=881}}</ref> In more general terms this argument would be:<ref name="sellars58"/> "If p, then q; p; Therefore q."

==== Indemonstrable arguments ====
Chrysippus listed five basic argument forms, called indemonstrables,<ref name="Mates">{{Harvnb|Mates|1953|pages=67–73 }}</ref>{{Ref label|C|c|none}} which all other arguments are reducible to:<ref name="ierodiakonou678">{{Harvnb|Ierodiakonou|2006|p=678}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1.0em auto;"
! colspan="4" style="background:white;text-align:center;" | Indemonstrable arguments
|-
! Name{{Ref label|D|d|none}}
! Description
! Example
|-
|style="white-space:nowrap;"| [[Modus ponens]]
|style="white-space:nowrap;"| If p, then q.  p.  Therefore, q.
| ''If it is day, it is light. It is day. Therefore, it is light.''
|-
|style="white-space:nowrap;" | [[Modus tollens]]
|style="white-space:nowrap;"| If p, then q.  Not q.  Therefore, not p.
| ''If it is day, it is light. It is not light. Therefore, it is not day.''
|-
|style="white-space:nowrap;"| [[Modus ponendo tollens]]
|style="white-space:nowrap;"| Not both p and q.  p.  Therefore, not q. 
| ''It is not both day and night. It is day. Therefore, it is not night.'' 
|-
|style="white-space:nowrap;"| [[Strong modus tollendo ponens]]
|style="white-space:nowrap;"| Either p or q.  Not p.  Therefore, q.
| ''It is either day or night. It is not day. Therefore, it is night.''
|-
|style="white-space:nowrap;"| [[Strong modus ponendo tollens]]
|style="white-space:nowrap;"| Either p or q.  p.  Therefore, not q.
| ''It is either day or night. It is day. Therefore, it is not night.''
|}

There can be many variations of these five indemonstrable arguments.<ref name="bobzien128">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=128}}</ref> For example the assertibles in the premises can be more complex, and the following syllogism is a valid example of the second indemonstrable (''modus tollens''):<ref name="bobzien129"/> "if both p and q, then r; not r; therefore not: both p and q" Similarly one can incorporate negation into these arguments.<ref name="bobzien129"/> A valid example of the fourth indemonstrable (strong ''modus tollendo ponens'' or exclusive disjunctive syllogism) is:<ref name="shenefeltwhite87">{{Harvnb|Shenefelt|White|2013|p=87}}</ref> "either [not p] or q; not [not p]; therefore q" which, incorporating the principle of [[double negation]], is equivalent to:<ref name="shenefeltwhite87"/> "either [not p] or q; p; therefore q."

==== Complex arguments ====
However, many other arguments are not expressed in the form of the five indemonstrables, and the task is to show how they can be reduced to one of the five types.<ref name="sellars60"/> A simple example of Stoic reduction is reported by [[Sextus Empiricus]]:<ref name="ierodiakonou521">{{Harvnb|Ierodiakonou|2009|p=521}}</ref> "if both p and q, then r; not r; but also p; Therefore not q" This can be reduced to two separate indemonstrable arguments of the second and third type:<ref name="ierodiakonou522">{{Harvnb|Ierodiakonou|2009|p=522}}</ref> "if both p and q, then r; not r; therefore not: both p and q; not: both p and q; p; therefore not q"

The Stoics stated that complex syllogisms could be reduced to the indemonstrables through the use of four ground rules or ''themata''.<ref name="bobzien133">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1996b|p=133}}</ref> Of these four ''themata'', only two have survived.<ref name="Kneale2">{{Harvnb|Kneale|Kneale|1962|p=169}}</ref><ref name="ancientlogic"/> One, the so-called first ''thema'', was a rule